Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

used). The PSI includes a validity scale (Defensive

Responding), which should be calculated first. Indi-

viduals with a Defensive Responding score of 24 or

less are likely to be underreporting stress, and caution

should be exercised when interpreting such test proto-

cols. Subscale scores are calculated by summing each

of the responses that correspond with the subscale.

The subscale scores and the Life Stress scale score (if

used) are then transferred from the score sheet to the

profile form. The Child Domain subscale and the

Parent Domain factor scores are calculated by sum-

ming the appropriate subscales within each domain.

To obtain the Total Stress score, users sum the Child

Domain score and the Parent Domain score. Per-

centile scores corresponding to each of the subscale

raw scores are provided on the profile page. Percentile

scores are derived from the frequency distribution of

the normative sample. Subscale scores may be inter-

preted individually; however, scores are best consid-

ered in relation to each other. The Total Stress score

can be used to gauge whether professional interven-

tionmight be warranted. Total Stress raw scores greater

than 260 suggest a need for referral to an appropriate

professional for consultation.

Standardization

Normative data were collected from 2,633 mothers of

children ranging from 1 month to 12 years. Normative

data were also collected from 200 fathers with children

ranging in age from 6 months to 6 years. The PSI’s

reading difficulty level is estimated at the fifth grade.

Reliability and Validity

Internal consistency (reliability) has been estimated at

.70 to .83 for the subscales comprising the Child

Domain and .70 to .84 for the Parent Domain sub-

scales. Broad domain and Total Stress reliability coef-

ficients are greater than .90. Test-retest reliability

coefficients (ranging from 3 weeks to 1 year after ini-

tial administration) were relatively stable across four

studies: .55 to .82 for the Child Domain, .69 to .91 for

the Parent Domain, and .65 to .96 for Total Stress.

Several studies support the construct and predictive

validity of the PSI. The PSI has been used to identify

specific stressors for mothers of children with devel-

opmental delays, behavioral disorders, and chronic

illness. Validation studies have been conducted in

Chinese, Italian, Portuguese, Latin American Hispanic,

and French Canadian populations. Collectively, these

studies suggested that the PSI’s psychometric charac-

teristics are stable and robust across cultural and socioe-

conomic boundaries.

Parenting Stress Index–

Short Form (PSI–SF)

The Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI–SF) was

derived from the PSI using factor-analytic procedures

at the request of clinicians and researchers who wanted

a valid measure of stress in the parent-child system that

could be administered in less than 10 minutes. At

36 items, this parent self-report inventory allows rapid

screening of parenting stress that derives from parent-

ing a difficult child, problems in the parent-child rela-

tionship, and stress that derives from personal factors

directly related to parenting. Total Stress and

Defensive Responding indicators are also obtained.

Research to date has suggested that the PSI–SF

performs similarly to the full-length PSI. The PSI

manual reports correlations of .87 to .94 between the

major PSI and PSI–SF domains noted above.

Jennifer L. Gagné and David Reitman

See also Divorce and Child Custody; Parent-Child

Relationship Inventory (PCRI); Parenting Satisfaction

Scale (PSS)

Further Readings

Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting

behavior. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21,407–412.

Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index(3rd ed.).

Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Reitman, D., Currier, R. O., & Stickle, T. R. (2002). A

critical evaluation of the Parenting Stress Index–Short

Form (PSI–SF) in a Head Start program. Journal

of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,

31 (3), 384–392.

PAROLEDECISIONS

Parole decisions have important implications. For

prisoners, such decisions mean early release or define

the conditions of release. For the public, prisoner

reentry raises concerns about safety and community

integration. Despite waning enthusiasm for rehabilita-

tion in some countries, by using advances in risk

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