Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

fails to address issues such as pertinent overcrowded

jails, excessive sentences, and distinguishing between

those who require incarceration and those who can be

managed in a less restrictive environment. The systems

approach also suggests that resolving prison over-

crowding will require cooperation and to some extent

integration of the three primary approaches to reducing

prison overcrowding: namely, administrative responses,

front-end strategies, and back-end strategies.

Much of the research on prison overcrowding has

taken a molar approach to the problem of overcrowd-

ing by using aggregate data from prisons or entire

prison systems. Although this has shed light on the

causes and consequences of prison overcrowding and

pointed out possible solutions, it also has limitations.

In recent years, researchers have called for more

research on individual-level factors that may moderate

the consequences of overcrowding. The few studies

that have been conducted on this issue have produced

potentially important findings, such as the fact that

some white inmates, particularly those who were

raised in rural areas, are more likely to perceive prison

conditions as overcrowded than black inmates, who

are often raised in more crowded urban environments.

Another interesting line of research suggests that indi-

viduals who interpret or misinterpret behavior as

aggressive are more likely to perceive the prison envi-

ronment as overcrowded.

Adopting a systems approach to research on prison

overcrowding and including individual-level modera-

tor variables in the analysis may enable us to better

understand prison overcrowding and its effect on the

inmates and staff who live and work in correctional

institutions and attain a firmer grasp of how over-

crowding can be effectively managed in the correc-

tional environment.

Glenn D. Walters

See alsoDrug Courts; Public Opinion About Sentencing and

Incarceration

Further Readings

Davis, R. K., Applegate, B. K., Otto, C. W., Surette, R., &

McCarthy, B. J. (2004). Roles and responsibilities:

Analyzing local leaders’ views on jail crowding from a

systems perspective. Crime and Delinquency, 50,

458–482.

Gaes, G. G., & McGuire, W. J. (1985). Prison violence: The

contribution of crowding versus other determinants of

prison assault rates. Journal of Research in Crime and

Delinquency, 22,41–65.

Harrison, P. M., & Beck, A. J. (2005, October). Bureau of

Justice Statistics Bulletin: Prisoners in 2004. Washington,

DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Kinkade, P., Leone, M., & Semond, S. (1995). The

consequences of jail crowding. Crime and Delinquency,

41,150–161.

Lawrence, C., & Andrews, K. (2004). The influence of

perceived prison crowding on male inmates’ perception of

aggressive events. Aggressive Behavior, 30,273–283.

Paulus, P. B. (1988). Prison crowding: A psychological

perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Vaughn, M. S. (1993). Listening to the experts: A national

study of correctional administrators’ responses to prison

overcrowding. Criminal Justice Review, 18,12–25.

PROBATIONDECISIONS

Probation officers’ decisions affect the legal experi-

ences and case outcomes of a substantial number of

defendants and offenders. Probation officers exercise

discretion and use subjective judgments and standard-

ized assessment tools in making decisions that influ-

ence the dispositions of criminal cases and offenders’

progress under community supervision. Probation

officers serve the court by providing judges with

information, protect the community by enforcing the

conditions of probation, and assist offenders to reinte-

grate into the community by brokering services and

other resources. Probation officers make decisions at

the pretrial, presentence, and postsentence stages of

the criminal justice process.

Pretrial Decisions

At the pretrial level, probation officers evaluate

defendants for release on bail or pretrial supervision,

which allows them to remain free while their case is

pending. The evaluation process focuses on defen-

dants’ risk of flight and their likelihood of continuing

their criminal activity. Probation officers collect

information on a variety of factors that are related to

offenders’ ties to the community and their propensity

to continue their criminal activity. Officers use inter-

viewing techniques and data collection forms as the

basis for their judgments. They must decide whether

to recommend pretrial release and, if so, whether to

Probation Decisions——— 621

P-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:43 PM Page 621