Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

and useful sex offender risk assessments. Results of this

nature, even taking into account the need for replica-

tion and cross-validation, suggest significant policy

and practice implications for the community supervi-

sion of sexual offenders. The STABLE–2007 and the

ACUTE–2007 instruments have demonstrated predic-

tive validity beyond that of the SONAR and the

STABLE–2000/ACUTE–2000 packages. STABLE–2007

and ACUTE 2007 are available free of charge from the

authors. The authors no longer support or recommend

the use of SONAR, STABLE–2000, or ACUTE–2000

but recommend STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 for

assessing dynamic changes in risk for sexual offenders.

Andrew J. R. Harris

See alsoMinnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised

(MnSOST–R); Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense

Recidivism (RRASOR); Risk Assessment Approaches;

Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR); Sex

Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG); STATIC–99

and STATIC–2002 Instruments; Violence Risk Appraisal

Guide (VRAG)

Further Readings

Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Scott, T.-L., & Helmus, L.

(2007). Assessing the risk of sexual offenders on

community supervision: The Dynamic Supervision Project

(User report, Corrections research). Ottawa, ON,

Canada: Public Safety Canada. Retrieved from

http://www.ps-sp.gc.ca/res/cor/sum/cprs200709-en.asp

STALKING

While the legal definition of stalking varies across

jurisdictions, behaviorally, it is generally considered to

comprise any of a wide range of repeated acts that

either threaten the victim, are intended to cause fear or

harm, cause distress, or are otherwise unwanted by the

victim. Before the proscription of stalking into criminal

law, instances of stalking were sometimes addressed by

other criminal laws (such as threats) or by the mental

health system. Most of the initial research into stalking

was conducted with stalkers who had come into contact

with the mental health system. As stalking was crimi-

nalized, research extended to include the experiences

and feelings of stalking victims as well as the examina-

tion of a broader range of stalkers. Additional research

has included the manner in which the community per-

ceives stalking behaviors, the factors influencing the

occurrence of stalking and stalking violence, and effec-

tive strategies for treating stalkers.

Stalking as a Criminal Act

Although stalking may appear to be a new phenomenon,

stalking behaviors have existed in some form for hun-

dreds of years. It is only in the last 17 years the behav-

iors that constitute stalking have been recognized as

criminal. Before its criminalization, instances of stalk-

ing brought to official attention were often dealt with by

mental health professionals. In 1990, the first stalking

legislation was instituted in California. A number of

cases in which celebrities were stalked, and in some

cases killed, by obsessed fans are surmised to have pro-

voked the first law in California. However, stalking

came to be recognized as occurring in a range of

circumstances, including intimate relationships.

Subsequently, all other American states introduced

stalking laws (or laws proscribing harassment). Stalking

laws have also been instituted in other countries such as

England and Australia as well as in many Western

European countries. Nevertheless, some stalkers are

ultimately managed within the mental health system.

The Mental Health

System and Stalking

Before stalking was recognized as criminal, the official

response to those who committed stalking was to

address their behavior within the mental health system.

Some of the first studies of stalking examined stalkers

who came into contact with this system. Such research

has produced a number of different classifications or

typologies of stalkers aimed at guiding approaches for

treating the stalker. An example of a classification sys-

tem used to categorize stalkers and their behaviors is

that devised by Paul Mullen and colleagues. Stalkers

are classified as rejected (the stalker engages in actions

against the victim at the end of a relationship), intimacy

seeking (the stalker tries to establish a romantic rela-

tionship with the victim), socially incompetent suitors

(the stalker tries to establish a connection with the vic-

tim but their lack of social skills ultimately leads to

their rejection), resentful (the stalker feels the victim

has wronged them and wants the victim to feel afraid),

and predatory (the stalker revels in the power they have

over the person and may sexually assault the victim).

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