Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

SbC subjects usually have significant others in their

lives, although these others are often part of the prob-

lem. Outstanding criminal warrants on the SbC subject

also are prevalent. They may state that they would

rather die than return to prison.

Although early research in SbC focused on prepa-

ration by SbC subjects, more recent research done by

the author has found that about half of the SbC inci-

dents are impulsive rather than planned. About half of

the SbC subjects, who she studied, had made some

sort of statement or had a change in behavior that

could be interpreted as presuicidal. These behaviors

included writing and leaving a note, telling a therapist

or significant other of what they were considering,

and giving away possessions. Prior suicide attempts

overall were not very prevalent; however, those who

had attempted suicide in the past were more likely to

be successful in their attempts in inducing police offi-

cers to shoot them.

The courts have not decided predominantly in

favor or against police officers in all SbC cases; how-

ever, the courts have agreed that only the facts known

by the officers at the time of the incident are relevant

to the case. Intentions or motives of the SbC subjects

discovered later are not directly related. The degree of

danger that the officer or another person is in is judged

at what is known by the officer at the time of the inci-

dent. Officers are granted qualified immunity unless

they violate established law. The plaintiff has the bur-

den to prove that the officers committed a constitu-

tional violation.

Although the courts should consider only what the

officer would have known at the time of the incident, it

is useful to conduct a psychological autopsy to investi-

gate what the individual’s state of mind was at the time

of the SbC incident. Such information will give officers

a better understanding of the subject’s motivation, plan,

and pathology. It can help also in officers’ psychologi-

cal debriefings. Information for a psychological

autopsy often is obtained from the subject’s friends,

family, and co-workers, as well as from any notes left

by the subject, recent high-risk behavior, the giving

away of personal property, and actions or statements

that suggest preoccupation with death and/or suicide.

Officers who are involved in the SbC incident, espe-

cially the officer(s) who actually shoot the subject, are

quite likely to suffer psychological traumatic stress dis-

order. Often, the subject does not actually have a loaded

or real gun, although it appears real at the time of

the incident. The officer may feel manipulated by the

subject and is unprepared for the emotional and physi-

ological reactions that follow the shooting. The officer

also is often not given the opportunity to verbalize or

emotionally ventilate his or her emotions. It is critical

that police agencies require officers to see a therapist if

they are involved in shootings or other violent incidents.

Vivian B. Lord

See alsoCritical Incidents; Police Psychology; Psychological

Autopsies

Further Readings

Hutson, H. R., Anglin, D., Yarbrough, J., Hardaway,

K., Russell, M., Strote, J., et al. (1998). Suicide by cop.

Annals of Emergency Medicine, 32,665–669.

Lord, V. B. (2004). Suicide by cop: Inducing officers to shoot.

Flushing, NY: Looseleaf Law.

Parent, R. B., & Verdun-Jones, S. (1998). Victim precipitated

homicide: Police use of deadly force in British Columbia.

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies

and Management, 21,432–448.

SUPERMAXPRISONS

Super-maximum secure or “supermax” prisons are

used to hold those prisoners whom prison authorities

regard as the most problematic in the prison system.

These facilities merge the 19th-century practice of

long-term solitary confinement with 21st-century tech-

nology in ways that subject prisoners to unparalleled

levels of isolation, surveillance, and control, usually for

long duration, with the potential to inflict significant

amounts of psychological harm. Despite a range of aca-

demic studies documenting the serious and potentially

long-lasting psychological harm it may inflict, and sev-

eral judicial opinions criticizing the risks it entails and

significantly limiting its use, the supermax prison form

persists. This entry describes the conditions in which

prisoners in supermax confinement are held, character-

istics of the supermax population, effects on prisoners

of supermax confinement, and the current legal status

of supermax prisons.

Although different prison systems employ different

terminology to refer to supermax-like conditions (e.g.,

“control unit,” “special management unit,” “security

housing unit,” or “close management”), these units have

enough distinctive features in common to be analyzed as

Supermax Prisons——— 787

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