with logically inconsistent responses of particular
note. Though some inconsistent responding is not
unusual, high levels suggest that the examinee may
have responded randomly or had reading comprehen-
sion difficulties or had been confused, careless, unco-
operative, or overtly psychotic. TRIN offers additional
information about response sets or styles that may
affect the profile, measuring the degree to which the
examinee responded inconsistently by endorsing
items similar in content, but phrased as opposites, as
both true or as both false. High scores indicate a ten-
dency to yea-say (i.e., endorse many items as true),
and low scores indicate a tendency to nay-say (i.e.,
endorse many items as false).
Third, the extent to which the examinee accurately
self-described symptoms and did not over- or underre-
port psychopathology is evaluated. Underreporting is
more common in personnel, presurgical, or child cus-
tody evaluations, whereas overreporting is more com-
mon in personal injury or criminal evaluations.
Several scales provide information about possible
overreporting or symptom exaggeration. The F
(Infrequency) scale includes items selected to detect
unusual or atypical responses. Reflecting bizarre sen-
sations, strange thoughts, and peculiar experiences,
they were answered in the deviant direction by no
more than 10% of an early subsample of the norma-
tive sample. There are several possible interpretations
for elevations on this scale including malingering,
random responding, or expressing a “cry for help.”
Though different in content relative to F, the Fb
(Infrequency-Back) scale is similar in purpose and
format, consisting of items at the end of the test, so
that response style can be evaluated throughout
the entire administration. The F(p) (Infrequency-
Psychopathology) scale consists of items that no more
than 20% of two samples of psychiatric inpatients, as
well as a normative sample, was endorsed in a deviant
direction; it was developed to detect malingering in
settings with high base rates of serious psychopathol-
ogy. The FBS (Fake Bad Scale) consists of items
infrequently endorsed by personal injury litigants that
tap somatic rather than psychiatric symptoms. High
elevations of these scales invalidate an MMPI–2 pro-
file and may indicate confusion or reading problems,
random responding, severe psychopathology, symp-
tom exaggeration, or malingering. In all, if an overre-
porting scale is elevated, it is likely the examinee
responded in a manner that exaggerated impressions
of experienced psychopathology.The two primary scales designed to detect underre-
porting of psychopathology are the L (Lie) and K
(Correction) scales. The L scale includes items
selected to identify examinees who are trying to avoid
answering items honestly so as to create an overly
positive impression. Because many L scale items are
obvious, elevations indicate that the examinee is
engaging in a psychologically unsophisticated and
naive attempt to portray himself or herself as possess-
ing high moral value, without even minor personal
flaws or shortcomings that most individuals would
endorse on a self-report test. Poor insight and denial
of problems are likely in these individuals. K scale
items were selected to assist in identifying individuals
who displayed significant psychopathology yet had
profiles within the normal range. Because such defen-
sive responding masks experienced symptoms, several
clinical scales (e.g., Schizophrenia) are corrected for
K scale scores. K scale elevations may indicate that an
examinee was being defensive, has poor insight, and
may be seeking to maintain a façade of adequacy and
control without admitting to problems or weaknesses.
As compared with L, the K scale assesses more
sophisticated and subtle defensive responding. In
addition to the L and K scales, the Wiggins’ Social
Desirability Scale, with items assessing self-confidence,
social skills, and effective decision making, evaluates
the degree to which examinees present themselves in
a positive and socially desirable fashion. A similar
scale, the Superlative scale, evaluates the degree to
which individuals present themselves in a superlative
or highly virtuous fashion, while denying problems.
As with L and K, elevations on these scales may rep-
resent defensiveness, impression management, or
poor insight or awareness into one’s behavior. Overall,
if an underreporting scale is elevated, it is likely the
examinee approached other items in a manner that
attempted to present the most favorable self-image
and deny psychological difficulties.
In addition to specific measures of over- and under-
reporting, test users can examine various configura-
tions and interrelations of the L, F, and K scales. An
example of this is the F-K Index, also known as the
Gough Dissimulation Index, for which the raw score
on the K (Correction) scale is subtracted from the
raw F (Infrequency) scale. Specific interpretive cut
scores points are available but, generally, high scores
(i.e., a significantly higher F than K) indicate overre-
porting of psychopathology, low scores (i.e., a signif-
icantly higher K than F) indicate underreporting of508 ———Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity ScalesM-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:43 PM Page 508