Almost immediately, the M’Naghten Standard was
employed in cases throughout England, the United
States, Canada, Australia, and other common law coun-
tries. The substantive requirements of the M’Naghten
rule are still being used by numerous jurisdictions
around the world, including 26 of the United States.
Despite its widespread acceptance, the M’Naghten
Standard has been strongly criticized, and it has long
been abandoned in England, the country in which it
originated so long ago. A number of competing tests for
legal insanity have been adopted and some jurisdictions
have abandoned the defense of insanity.James R. P. OgloffSee alsoGuilty but Mentally Ill Verdict; Insanity Defense
Reform Act (IDRA)Further Readings
Moran, R. (1981). Knowing right from wrong: The insanity
defense of Daniel McNaughton.New York: Macmillan.
Moran, R. (1985). The modern foundation for the insanity
defense of Daniel McNaughton.New York: Macmillan.
Regina v. M’Naghten,10 Cl. and F. 200, 8 Eng. Rep. at 718
(1843).MOOD DISORDERS
Mood disorders are among the most common mental
disorders in the Western world. Formerly called affec-
tive disorders,these disorders involve a predominant
disturbance in mood. In each case, the mood distur-
bance leads to other problems, which frequently
include physical symptoms (such as fatigue), behav-
ioral symptoms (such as social withdrawal), and cog-
nitive symptoms (such as self-critical thoughts). The
various mood disorders differ based on the type
and duration of symptoms. Severe mood disorders
develop from a combination of biological, stressful
experiences and personality types or interpersonal
factors. Treatment options usually include a combina-
tion of medication and psychotherapy.
The various mood disorders can be distinguished
based on the nature of the mood disturbance, the
severity of symptoms, and their duration. The depres-
sive disorders (sometimes known as unipolar disor-
ders) are primarily characterized by a sad mood or aprofound loss of enjoyment in most activities. In
younger persons, the mood may be irritable rather
than despondent. The depressed mood is often experi-
enced as sadness, tearfulness, discouragement, and
feeling “down in the dumps.” In some cases, the per-
son may complain of feeling emotionless. The loss of
enjoyment or loss of pleasure, called anhedonia,is
virtually always present to some extent in the depres-
sive disorders; it is often experienced as a loss of
interest in one’s hobbies and usual activities. A reduc-
tion in sex drive is another common experience.
Other common symptoms of depressive disorders
include sleep problems, low energy, and changes in
appetite. Common sleep problems include insomnia
in the form of nighttime waking and difficulty return-
ing to sleep or early morning waking. Because of low
energy and fatigue, the smallest tasks may seem over-
whelming. Changes in appetite may be so profound as
to cause extreme unintended changes in weight, usu-
ally weight loss, over a short period of time. During
periods of depressed mood, cognitions frequently
involve a sense of worthlessness and excessive guilt.
Trivial events may be misinterpreted as proof of
one’s inadequacy, consistent with the negative mood.
Decision making and concentration are compromised.
Thoughts about death and suicide are common.
The disturbance in bipolar disorders involves peri-
ods of depressed mood and separate periods in which
the mood is abnormally elevated. The signs of a manic
mood include feelings of euphoria, a “high,” or an
abnormally cheerful mood. The mood may rapidly
turn to irritability if others are perceived as interfering
with the individual’s plans. Inflated self-esteem
occurs invariably; it may range from boastful self-
confidence to grandiose delusions, such as having the
firm belief that one has supernatural powers.
Many symptoms of the manic phases of bipolar
disorders are opposite to those experienced in the
depressive disorders. In a manic phase, the individual
may demonstrate an uninhibited enthusiasm for plea-
surable activities, which could include irresponsible
spending sprees and indiscriminate sexual pursuits.
The need for sleep is markedly reduced and surplus
energy abounds. In a manic phase of bipolar disorder,
a person may speak in an incessant, rapid, and loud
manner. Thoughts may flow at such a rapid pace that
the person may seem unable to keep up with them, a
phenomenon known as flight of ideas.Excess energy,
combined with unbridled enthusiasm and a euphoric
mood, often lead unknowing observers to conclude512 ———Mood DisordersM-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:43 PM Page 512