Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

batons, flashlights, and fists, have beaten citizens who

are having seizures because they incorrectly labeled

the citizens’ actions as unresponsive and resistant.

Officers also have used inappropriate force when they

misperceived mentally ill persons’ actions as disre-

spectful and unresponsive to their legal authority;

media publicity about such incidents has served as an

impetus for police departments to develop special units,

strategies, and training to improve officers’ inter-

actions with mentally ill citizens. It is difficult to

examine what situational and officers’ characteristics

contribute to the use of excessive or incorrect force

because individuals cannot agree (except at the most

extreme) on what actions constitute excessive force.

However, based on surveys completed by police offi-

cers, between 13% and 20% of officers reported hav-

ing observed a fellow officer using considerably more

physical force than was necessary or harass a citizen

based most likely on his or her race.

Good police performance requires the ability to

know when to use any coercive verbal statements or

physical actions. Officers may use coercive actions,

most of which are verbal, in attempting to get persons

to comply with their orders and acknowledge their

legitimate legal authority. Studies of the use of force

often examine verbal commands and threats as well as

physical force, with physical force sometimes ordered

from least to more severe. Several studies have found

that officers are more likely to arrest and use force

against suspects who have a disrespectful demeanor

than suspects who are respectful. The influence of sus-

pects’ demeanor on arrest and use-of-force decisions

cannot be accounted for entirely by disrespectful sus-

pects being more likely to commit crimes during their

interactions with officers. Demeanor also receives sig-

nificant consideration in officers’ decisions to take

juvenile offenders into custody. Demeanor and citi-

zens’ resistance also contribute to officers’ use of ver-

bal and physical force. That is, officers are more likely

to use verbal or physical force against suspects who

resist responding to commands or questions and/or who

are more verbally or physically aggressive toward police

officers. Studies have determined a relationship between

citizens’ resistance and officers’ use of force, but it is

unclear how often officers use verbal threats or physi-

cal force against nonresisting and respectful citizens.

Research has shown inconsistent findings on

whether minority offenders are more likely to resist

answering officers’ questions or complying with com-

mands and to use verbal or physical aggression

against officers. Given the mixed results, the racial

disparity in the use of force against minority offenders

cannot be explained by offenders’ propensity to resist

or use verbal or physical aggression.

Several situational characteristics are related to

officers’ use of force. Officers have indicated that depart-

mental policies concerning use of force affect their

decisions to use force. In addition, studies have found

that officers are more likely to use verbal coercion or

physical force in situations involving conflict, against

intoxicated suspects or offenders who have a weapon,

when there is evidence of a crime, when two or more

officers are present, when bystanders are not present,

and when they are attempting to prevent crime or

intervene while a crime is in progress. Officers may be

more likely to use force when other officers are pres-

ent because they have witnesses who can testify that

the force was reasonable given the suspect’s behavior;

similarly, the presence of a greater number of bystanders

reduces the likelihood of officers using verbal or

physical force, because it increases the chance of wit-

nesses testifying against them. Younger suspects and

those of a lower socioeconomic status have a greater

chance of both verbal and physical force being used

against them. Minorities and male suspects are more

likely to experience physical force but are not more

likely to experience verbal coercion.

Some officer characteristics are related to the use

of force. Officers who have job burnout reported more

support for the use of force, reported greater fre-

quency of using force, and were more likely to be

independently observed using force. Officers with a

greater number of years on the police force are less

likely to use verbal or physical force. Compared with

officers having only a high school education, officers

with a college degree and those with some college

experience are less likely to use coercive verbal

demands or threats, and officers with a college degree

are less likely to use physical force.

Loretta J. Stalans

See alsoPolice Decision Making and Domestic Violence;

Police Interaction With Mentally Ill Individuals; Police

Psychology; Police Training and Evaluation; Police

Use of Force

Further Readings

Beckett, K., Nyrop, K., & Pfingst, L. (2006). Race, drugs,

and policing: Understanding disparities in drug delivery

arrests. Criminology, 44(1), 105–137.

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