Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

scene. Much of this work has aimed to understand

how an offender engages in patterns of actions that all

demonstrate a similar underlying psychological

dimension or subset. Any crime can be profiled using

the appropriate frameworks, and work to date has

included theft, burglary, robbery, arson, fraud, rape,

pedophilia, crimes committed by youths, homicide,

serial homicide, and others. The relevant psychologi-

cal dimensions depend on the crimes analyzed. Some

examples used in homicide work include behaviors

indicative of expressive and instrumental types of

aggression—such as treating a victim as an object or

as a person, acting in a controlled or an impulsive

manner—all of which are already well-established

thematic classifications of human behavior in the gen-

eral psychological literature.

Behavioral consistencyis a key issue in profiling,

specifically for understanding both the development

of an offender’s criminal career and an individual’s

consistency across a series of crimes—that is, whether

the same subsets of actions are displayed at each

crime scene over a series (linking serial crime). Much

of this work has focused on whether consistency in

criminal behavior can be established over time, as

well as how individuals change and develop through

learning and experience and whether offenders spe-

cialize or are generalists.

The search for consistencies has been approached

in various ways in the theoretical literature, notably by

establishing whether the offender acts according to

the same psychological subtype or theme from one

crime to the next (e.g., expressive or instrumental),

whether the offender engages in the same specific

behaviors from one crime to the next (modus

operandi), or whether the offender engages in highly

specialized behaviors unique to him or her and that

are related more to his or her personal agenda, or fan-

tasies (signature). The first few published studies on

empirically validating these theoretical concepts indi-

cate that although some consistency is evident, our

understanding of the intricacies of the actual patterns

over time requires closer empirical study, specifically

in terms of how offenders develop, mature, experi-

ment, and change in a consistent manner across time,

as well as how situational factors influence an

offender’s behavioral consistency.

Inferences about offender characteristicsis at the

core of profiling and also uses consistency analysis as

its main focus. At this stage, however, the main aim

is to establish the link between subgroups of crime

scene actions and subgroups of offender background

characteristics in order to make predictions about an

offender based on his or her criminal actions at the

crime scene. This can then ultimately be used as a pri-

mary tool for the police to narrow their suspect pool

down to statistically the most likely offender. Offender

characteristics focused on typically include demo-

graphics, such as gender, age, and education, previous

interpersonal and criminal history, home location and

travel patterns (also known as geographical profiling),

and the offender’s relationship with the victim.

C. Gabrielle Salfati

See alsoCriminal Behavior, Theories of; Police Decision

Making; Serial Killers

Further Readings

Alison, L., Smith, M. D., Eastman, O., & Rainbow, L.

(2003). Toulmin’s philosophy of argument and its

relevance to offender profiling. Psychology, Crime & Law,

9 (2), 173–183.

Canter, D. (2000). Offender profiling and criminal

differentiation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 5,

23–46.

Canter, D. V., Alison, L. J., Alison, E., & Wentink, N. (2004).

The organized/disorganized typology of serial murder:

Myth or model? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law,

10 (3), 293–320.

Salfati, C. G. (2000). Profiling homicide: A multidimensional

approach. Homicide Studies, 4(3), 265–293.

Salfati, C. G., & Bateman, A. (2005). Serial homicide: An

investigation of behavioral consistency [Electronic

version]. Journal of Investigative Psychology and

Offender Profiling, 2(2), 121–144. Retrieved from

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~gsalfati/salfati%20and%20

bateman%20abstract.htm

Salfati, C. G., & Canter, D. V. (1999). Differentiating

stranger murders: Profiling offender characteristics from

behavioral styles. Behavioral Sciences and the Law,

17,391–406.

PROSECUTORIALMISCONDUCT

Prosecutorial misconduct is any courtroom behavior

on the part of the prosecutor that violates trial rules

and denies defendants their right to due process.

Examples of misconduct may include making unfair

or improper comments about the defendant, defense

counsel, or a defense witness; suppressing, tampering

Prosecutorial Misconduct——— 631

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