stress, and coping; social support; recent significant
loss; suicidal ideation; suicidal intent; and suicide plan.
The SAMI includes an assessment of each of these
variables, with the exception of age and sex given the
low variability on these factors since the vast majority
of jail inmates are males in their 20s and 30s.
The SAMI is a new instrument, and research exam-
ining its reliability and validity is limited. Results of a
preliminary study in which the SAMI was administered
to 138 pretrial defendants indicate acceptable levels of
interrater reliability. In addition, this research indicates
that scores on the SAMI items are related to institu-
tional category of risk for suicide (low, medium, high),
need for mental health services, and need for monitor-
ing within the pretrial facility. Factor analysis of the
SAMI items identifies six factors: affective disturbance,
suicide history, current cognitive state, current situa-
tional variables, impulsivity, and support and coping.
The first three factors (affective disturbance, suicide
history, and current cognitive state) are strongly associ-
ated with institutional category of risk for suicide, need
for mental health services, and need for monitoring
within the institution. The sixth factor, support and cop-
ing, is also strongly associated with need for mental
health services. Regression analyses with the SAMI
have indicated that Factors 1 and 2 (affective distur-
bance and suicide history) are predictive of referral to
mental health services within the institution, whereas
Factors 2 and 3 (suicide history and current cognitive
state) are predictive of category of institutional suicide
risk. Further research investigating the predictive utility
of the SAMI is currently underway.Patricia A. ZapfSee alsoSuicide Assessment and Prevention in PrisonsFurther Readings
Zapf, P. A. (2006). Suicide assessment manual for inmates.
Burnaby, BC: Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute.SUICIDE BYCOP
Suicide by cop (SbC) is a phenomenon confronted by
police officers in which suicidal individuals behave in
such a way as to force officers to use lethal force
against them. Research findings have found commoncharacteristics and behaviors among SbC subjects.
The phenomenon is recognized sufficiently that there
are a number of court decisions that are relevant to
incidents that are defined as SbC. Finally, police offi-
cers often suffer psychologically after their involve-
ment in SbC incidents. Their suffering must be
addressed if they are not to have long-term effects.
Suicide requires an active decision to kill oneself.
Such action may conflict with religious ideology, or the
subject may fear societal stigma. Suicidal individuals
also may fear pain and believe that the police officers’
training in lethal force will ensure their instant death.
Some of these individuals have a desire to die in a high-
profile “blaze of glory.” Often, the decision of individ-
uals to induce the police to use lethal force against them
is impulsive. Emotionally distraught and under the
influence of alcohol, many individuals form a cloudy
decision to die only when the police arrive in response
to a precipitating event such as a domestic dispute. Due
to some of these conditions, suicidal subjects may
become SbC subjects, inducing officers to kill them.
As with other suicidal behavior, the subject fre-
quently is ambivalent about death. If the police can
delay a confrontation, SbC subjects often are open to
negotiation, especially if they become sober.
Unfortunately, as found by studies conducted by the
author, SbC subjects often place officers in situations
in which they cannot get themselves or the victims in
a safe place, so must shoot the SbC subjects. Also
similar to other forms of suicide attempts, the behav-
ior that often accompanies an SbC incident is an
endeavor to cope with stressful life events by self-
destructive behaviors.
SbC subjects primarily are male, White, and more
than 25 years old. They often have a mental illness his-
tory, including mood and personality disorders.
Alcohol is used in a majority of the recorded SbC inci-
dents, with a number of the individuals having a history
of alcohol abuse. Subjects under the influence of alco-
hol overcome their inhibitions and are more impulsive
and lethal. Often, anger and aggression are indicated by
a number of past assault or domestic violence com-
plaints, homicidal pre-incident conversations, and
negotiation conversations that include injury to others.
Precipitating events to the SbC incidents often
include the termination of a relationship and/or other
family problems. SbC subjects have been known to
attempt to use the incident as a means to coerce a sig-
nificant other to remain in a relationship or for revenge
against a significant other. Unlike other suicide victims,786 ———Suicide by CopS-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:44 PM Page 786