Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

United Kingdom, Quintan Wiktorowicz outlines a

four-part, developmental process based on social

movement theory. Although each model was devel-

oped independently, and almost contemporaneously,

the consistency of the major themes across the three

models is quite striking.

To what extent is psychopathology relevant for under-

standing or preventing terrorism? Research on the

psychology of terrorism has been nearly unanimous in

its conclusion that mental illness and abnormality are

typically not critical factors in explaining terrorist

behavior. Studies have found that the prevalence of

mental illness among samples of incarcerated terrorists

is as low as or lower than in the general population.

Moreover, although terrorists often commit heinous

acts, they would rarely be considered classic psy-

chopaths. Terrorists typically have some connection to

principles or ideology as well as to other people

(including other terrorists) who share them.

Psychopaths, however, do not form such connections,

nor would they be likely to sacrifice themselves

(including dying) for a cause.

To what extent is individual personality relevant for

understanding or preventing terrorism? There is no

terrorist personality “type,” nor is there any accurate

profile—psychologically or otherwise—of the terror-

ist. Moreover, personality traits alone tend not to be

very good predictors of behavior. Becoming a terrorist

is probably best regarded as a process rather than as a

single decision. That process is affected not only by

the individual psychological characteristics, but also

by situational factors, recent experiences, associations

with others, and the ambient political environment and

influence of people’s constituencies. The quest to

understand terrorism principally by studying the per-

sonality traits of terrorists is likely to be an unproduc-

tive area for further investigation and inquiry.

To what extent are an individual’s life experiences rel-

evant for understanding or preventing terrorism?

Certain life experiences tend to be commonly found

among terrorists. Histories of childhood abuse and

trauma appear to be widespread. In addition, themes of

perceived injustice and humiliation often are promi-

nent in terrorist biographies and personal histories.

None of these contribute much to a causal explanation

of terrorism but may be seen as markers of vulnerabil-

ity, possible sources of motivation, or mechanisms for

acquiring or hardening one’s militant ideology.

What is the role of ideology in terrorist behavior?

Ideology is often defined as a common and broadly

agreed on set of rules to which an individual subscribes,

which help regulate and determine behavior. Ideologies

that support terrorism, while quite diverse, appear to

have three common structural characteristics: They pro-

vide a set of beliefs that guide and justify a series of

behavioral mandates; those beliefs are inviolable and

must be neither questionable nor questioned; and the

behaviors are goal directed and seen as serving some

cause or meaningful objective. Culture is a critical fac-

tor in the development of ideology, but its impact on

terrorist ideologies specifically has not been exten-

sively studied. Ideology guides and controls behavior,

perhaps by providing a set of behavioral contingencies

that link immediate behavior and actions to long-term

positive outcomes and rewards, or it may best be

viewed as a form of rule-following behavior.

What distinguishes extremists who act violently from

those who do not?Not all extremist ideologies facilitate

violence, nor are all extremists violent. One potentially

useful distinction to consider is the direction of

activity—that is, whether the focus is more on promo-

tion of a cause or destruction of those who oppose it.

Even within destruction-oriented extremism, it usually

takes more than ideology to compel violent action.

Psychological and social influences must erode the

powerful, naturally occurring barriers that inhibit wide-

spread human killing. The two main avenues of assault

on those barriers are outside-in (i.e., effects of the group

or social environment) and inside-out (i.e., making an

internal cognitive adjustment about how to perceive the

environment or situation).

What are the vulnerabilities of terrorist groups?

Terrorist groups, like all social collectives, have cer-

tain vulnerabilities in their existence. Some come

from within the organization, and some operate from

outside. Internal vulnerabilities include internal mis-

trust, boredom/inactivity, competition for power, and

major disagreements. Some of the more common

external vulnerabilities include external support, con-

stituencies, and intergroup conflict.

How do terrorist organizations form, function, and

fail? Surprisingly little research or analysis has been

conducted on the stages and cycles of terrorist groups’

organizational development and functioning. In partic-

ular, there has been little systematic inquiry on the

process of terrorist recruitment, despite the fact that

Terrorism——— 797

T-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:44 PM Page 797