recent years, with scholars pointing out a number of potential shortcomings
(even when using a fairly complex notion of empathy, as in this section). Most
importantly, people tend to show more empathy toward some people than
others. The favored circle of people with whom we empathize best includes in-
group members, family, individuals close to us, and people who are similar to
us (de Waal, 2009, pp. 83, 115, 221; Decety & Cowell, 2015). Consequently,
letting empathy govern moral decisions can lead to outright immoral behav-
ior. As Jesse Prinz illustrated the problem,
Empathy may lead us to recklessly support social programs when toughness is
called for. We may give preferential treatment to children who are sweet and cute,
neglecting bratty teens who really need our help. We may attend more to the
students with whom we identify rather than to the students who need us most.
Empathy is good when directed at our friends, but the norms of friendship are all
about preferential treatment; for that reason, this is not a paragon case of a moral
relationship. (Prinz, 2011, p. 229)The circle of people toward whom empathy is directed varies across cultures
(Hollan, 2014). Readingfiction and exposure to art and media could be partly
responsible for the specific understanding and role of empathy in the modern
West (Decety & Grèzes, 2006; Goldstein & Winner, 2012; Bal & Veltkamp,
2013; Kidd & Castano, 2013). Thus cultural transmission can modulate
empathy in significant ways and determines with whom we empathize.
There are other problems with empathy-based morality, as well. For example,
the more power we have, the less empathy we show (van Kleef et al., 2008;
Guinote et al., 2015; Vega & Ward, 2016). The claim that psychopaths lack
empathy is widespread; however, their indifference to others’fate seems to result
from their inability to experience fear rather than a general deficiency in
responding to emotions (Marsh, 2014). People with autism, in contrast, prob-
ably lack interest and experience in learning about other’s thoughts and feelings,
as well as have difficulties identifying with others, whereas they are still capable
of distress and true concern about others’well-being (Hobson & Hobson, 2014;
Maibom, 2014, p. 17). As Decety suggested recently (Decety & Cowell, 2014), it
would be perhaps fruitful do dismantle the academic concept of empathy and
study emotion sharing, empathic concern, and perception taking as three
different mental processes. After all, the notion of empathy might turn out to
be a folk-intuition that is not best suited to study human moral behavior.
8.2 RELIGION FROM EVOLVED MORALITYWhy do people care about each other’s well-being at all? Since any resources
not spent on enhancing thefitness of the organism or its offspring are missed
172 Cognitive Science and the New Testament