muscle mass and power are taken into account (Puts, 2010, p. 161). Men
mature later (to have more strength when they enter the contest for mates),
take more risks, and die earlier. These factors and the use of weapons (for
fighting rather than hunting, as indicated by men’s adaptations for intercept-
ing attacks) are indicators of strong male contest in our ancestors. Men
probably formed alliances to protect a group of females and competed for
dominance within the group. The collective control of women is known from
many historical and contemporary contexts, and the evolved traits underlying
it are manifested in patriarchal psychological and social elements of the
biblical world. An extreme consequence of this social arrangement is warfare
to take women (Gat, 2009, pp. 586–7), a frequent topic of ancient literature
(e.g., women as war prize inIliad1.138–41, 1.322–3 and elsewhere; Sabine
women in Livy 1.9 and Plutarch,Parallel LivesII). Both Genesis 34 and
Numbers 31 present the massacre of the enemy and the abduction of
women as rightful revenge for sexual offences, the text of Numbers offering
a particularly pious explanation. Aspects of the Jesus tradition that mitigate
these deep-seated attitudes of the ancient world (Theissen, 2001, 2003) there-
fore have to be interpreted as important cultural innovations.
Another form of sexual selection is sexual conflict, arising from the fact that
optimal outcomes for the two sexes require different mating strategies (Kappeler
& van Schaik, 2004; Watson-Capps, 2009). In humans (and most primates), this
results in sexual coercion (using harassment, exchange, or rape) and infanticide
(killing competitors’offspring) by males as well as counter-measures by females,
such as physical avoidance and resistance, female bonding, seeking protection
from male“body-guards,”confusing paternity (to minimize infanticide), the
synchronization of reproductive cycles (so that it is more difficult for a single
male to monopolize females). It is important that we understand the evolution-
ary roots of the patriarchal tendencies in (biblical) religion and consider this
context when analyzing cultural developments that mitigate such tendencies.
An interesting result of sexual conflict is the female tendency to combine
protection by a long-term partner (seeking immediate benefits over good
genes) while using opportunities for mating with other males (looking for
good genes rather than reliable partners) (Kappeler & van Schaik, 2004, p. 9;
Puts, 2010, pp. 164–5). Under such circumstances, men invest into long-term
relationships and pay a high price if they become the victims of cuckoldry. This
creates a role for religion as a display of female chastity, much on the analogy of
its suggested role in reputation management.
2.2.9 Group SelectionAs we have discussed above (section 2.1), the evolution of genetically inherited
traits by natural selection at the level of groups is a debated issue. The only
Evolution 39