How To Be HumanThis is because, while always conscious of our animal nature,
Aristotle believed we can surpass that nature – never completely,
but often substantially: we also have the capacity to transcend
the constraints of our biology, at least to a degree. Understanding
is the beginning of that change, coupled to training and practice.
Hence, alongside the question of happiness, Aristotle discusses
the moral virtues, particularly those that require self-refl ection,
such as prudence and restraint. These are known as the cardinal
virtues, and they are those upon which any distinctively human
ethics hinges because they enable us to question the limitations
of our animal instincts, such as empathy, and behave not just
according to our biology but to the best in our nature. Charles
Darwin made a similar observation when, in The Descent of Man,
he noted that while animals have ‘well-marked social instincts’,
it is ‘intellectual powers’, such as human beings have, that lead
to the acquisition of the moral sense of right and wrong. (Darwin
also presumed that the primates have similar intellectual powers,
but although experiments like those with the monkeys call that
into question, his fundamental point about the link between
cognition and morality is right in the virtue schema. It is the
one Socrates made too.)
To put it another way, the ethical life for the human animal
is a question of what Aristotle called practical and rational intel-
ligence, and is learned by engaging in life. It requires the culti-
vation of good habits, and a greater awareness of our personal
fl aws and inconsistencies. Needless to say, this is a lifelong task
and, unless you are a saint, never comes to an end. Moreover,
it’s a journey powerfully infl uenced not just by our refl ection
and effort, but by the stories we tell ourselves too, about what
makes life good and full. Such stories speak to our humanity
and inspire us to keep at it. They stir up moral sensibilities in
us and fi re our moral imagination. It’s why moral heroes and
morality tales are so important. They’re often complex and
ambivalent, mirroring our own struggles to live well. Religion
will have a vital part to play in this, even for agnostics. It is just
too rich a resource of parables and myths to discard.