62 Biography of a Yogispace and yogic attainment in the context of later tantric traditions, but these
tend to more frequently employ synonymous terminolog y such as vyoman,
gagana, and kha.^11
Thus, although ākāśa is certainly pervasive as both a term and general concept
in Indian understandings of subtle embodiment and metaphysics, it constitutes
only a minor component of these schemas. It is generally understood as only a
single element of a larger framework and is only rarely envisioned as being any-
where near the originating basis of material reality at large. When it is used in a
more generic sense, it can become descriptive of or even synonymous with aspects
of absolute reality, but in these cases it loses its material quality, coming instead to
represent the uniquely non- material character of the absolute.
Although Indian notions of subtle materiality certainly come to be assimi-
lated into Western conceptions of the same, when we encounter the specific term
ākāśa, it tends to assume something other than its original role. In responding
to the Western framework of mind- body dualism, which associates mind with
spirit and body with matter, both the Theosophists’ and Vivekananda’s schemas
yield conflicting visions of what constitutes materiality. Following Sāṃkhyan
and Vedāntin conceptions of ākāśa as the source of the other gross elements,
both tend to equate the term with the source of materiality writ- large. The posi-
tion of the mind and its constituent tattvas thus becomes ambiguous, since such
principles are considered aspects of materiality in the original Indian framework
but not in the Western context into which they are introduced. Thus, ākāśa,
conforming to its analogous ethereal counterpart, at times comes to signify the
bridge between materiality and the mind, which is not quite spirit but is no
longer matter as such.
Western Theories of Ether
The Western side of this early history begins, as things usually do in mainstream
narratives of Western civilization, with the ancient Greeks. Concepts of aer (atmo-
spheric misty air) and aither (a shining, blazing, fiery upper air) were employed
in the metaphysics of sixth- century bce Ionian philosophers in ways that indi-
cate an already well- established common cosmological understanding. These two
entities could be interpreted in variable ways along with a third, pneuma (the air
of breath), to yield something like an ethereal cosmogony.^12 However, it is not
until the work of Aristotle that we see a full theory of ether. For Aristotle, the fifth
element of the celestial aither— the other four being air, fire, water, and earth—
has an earthly analog in the circulation of the animating force of pneuma, or life
breath. The Stoics go on to equate the two, further associating them with the