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children- in-law, which correspond to more recent ties. Finally, education
also plays a significant role on the proportion of very recent and very old
alters. Individuals with low levels of education show a higher proportion
of very recent alters and a lower proportion of very old acquaintances
compared to those with a medium education level. This education effect
seems to be linked to the calendars of transition to parenthood and
grandparenthood, as individuals with lower levels of education are more
likely to make the transition to parenthood at earlier ages compared to
individuals who have higher levels of education, which are associated
with longer educational careers and the postponement of family transi-
tions (Ramos 2015 ). Lastly, family-related attitudes do not play a signifi-
cant role in the inclusion of different types of acquaintances.
Discussion
The study of personal networks requires a multidimensional approach in
order to capture the impact of the intersection between historical, social,
and biographical times on the construction of family and personal life.
The cross-national perspective undertaken in this chapter, by comparing
the composition of personal networks in Portugal, Switzerland, and
Lithuania and their main shaping factors, provides a basis for further
studies on the impact of social development (Elias 2001 ) on the private
arena of personal relationships in distinct national contexts. First of all,
despite some common characteristics, personal networks differ across the
countries studied, revealing the different weights attributed to various
underlying mechanisms of proximity linked to kinship, co-residence,
acquaintanceship, and gender homophily. Furthermore, this cross-
national perspective highlights the cumulative impacts of historical pro-
cesses, welfare-state policies, and social and economic living conditions
related to each particular country, as well as the importance of situating
personal networks in the framework of an individuals’ life course, and
structural and normative circumstances.
Overall, the most contrasting countries are Switzerland and Lithuania.
Portugal assumes an in-between position, as the country is similar to
Switzerland with regard to some characteristics of its personal networks
R. Gouveia et al.