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more likely to favour a type of solidarity which includes more non-
kinship ties, because such family policies should alleviate the pressure
on intergenerational support. Any shift away from family solidarity,
however, must also be sustained by favourable socio-economic condi-
tions, which are not always found in Portugal, and even less so in
Lithuania. Indeed, employment or sufficient unemployment benefit,
family allowances and pensions, and access to autonomous housing are
likely to be prerequisites for more diversified sociability and increasing
defamilialization. While Switzerland does not favour a dual-earner
model, it does fit the socio-economic stability criterion which promotes
greater individual autonomy. Finally, the inclusion of kinship ties in
personal configurations also depends on the subjective importance
attributed to family. In countries with strong family norms and obliga-
tions, often fostered by a Catholic past or a familialist state like Portugal
and Lithuania, despite their differences in political orientation, families
and extended kin are likely to remain at the core of sociability, while in
countries in which individuals hold more liberal and individualized val-
ues, like Switzerland, this may not be the case. However, the normative
context also underlines dependency within marriage and a male bread-
winner model when children are young, additionally making for a
strong focus on the conjugal and parent-child dyads.
In addition to countries, we need to pay attention to demographic reser-
voirs. Indeed, younger respondents belonging to the 1970–1975 birth
cohort and older respondents belonging to the 1950–1955 birth cohort do
not have the same ties available in their demographic reservoirs. For indi-
viduals keen on fostering intergenerational solidarity, this will influence the
direction of exchange, with a focus on upper intergenerational ties for
younger cohorts and on downward intergenerational ties for older cohorts.
Gender also influences intergenerational solidarity. Women tend to play a
key role in maintaining intergenerational relationships, even if their role is
weakened by some policies promoting more equal gender roles. We will
thus examine the potential differences between female and male sociability
patterns across the three countries. In assessing the extent of diversity, it
should be pointed out that combinations of complex arrangements may
require cultural and economic capital. We will therefore examine the differ-
ences between individuals with various levels of educational attainment.
G. Aeby et al.