36
Switzerland. Conversely, crude divorce rates have been increasing in these
countries but remain average (between 2.2 and 2.5) compared to other
western countries. Differing trends can be found in Lithuania: the mar-
riage rate increased until 1990, but has since been declining (from 9.5 in
1979 to 6.3 in 2011). The crude divorce rate was 2.2 already in 1970 and
has remained around 3.4 per thousand since the 1990s.
One of the major drivers underpinning demographic changes in the
realm of family and private life has been the massive move of women
into labour market since the second part of twentieth century. In fact, in
all three countries, most women aged 20–64 were employed in 2011
(62.2% in Lithuania; 64.8% in Switzerland; 75.6% in Portugal).
Nevertheless, there are significant differences in the way women are
involved in the labour market. In Lithuania, most women are in full-
time employment, with only 8.3% working part time. In part this is a
legacy of Soviet times, when there was a requirement for full employ-
ment for men and women. On the other hand, current salary levels are
not conducive to part-time work: lower working hours mean lower earn-
ings, regardless of gender, education, or other indicators. Low income
levels in the country force both men and women to share the breadwin-
ner role. In contrast, in Switzerland one-third of women work part time
and only 16% are dual- earner couples among those with at least one
child under six. As for Portugal, part-time employment among women
is only 10%, and dual- earner couples account for 93% of the total,
which means that Portugal is much closer to Lithuania on this issue than
to Switzerland.
Among couples, choosing between one-earner and dual-earner is
influenced by economic and cultural factors. Low unemployment
rates (4.1% in 2011) and rather high expenditure on social protection
(23% as a percentage of GDP, 2011) in Switzerland guarantee several
income sources for most families in the country. Thus, for many fami-
lies, a one- earner or one-and-a-half model is acceptable. Also, child-
care is private, which can lead to women giving up their careers to stay
at home.
Conversely, Lithuania’s high unemployment rate (15.4% in 2011)
means that many families struggle to make ends meet. An underfunded
state social protection system is unable to provide enough support to
V. Ramos et al.