The ulema acquired more than just popular respect for their
intimate knowledge of the Qur’an. They acquired financial
power. They received an income for their work as teachers. They
also received a share of the taxes that Islam requires of its
people, and they were in charge of distributing contributions to
the needy. By the end of the nineteenth century, the ulema were
a powerful group, both in influencing public thinking and in
controlling a significant share of the country’s economy. They
exercised their power apart from—and often in disagreement
with—the government.
Opposition to the Qajar Dynasty grew, led by Muslim clerics.
The religious leaders sensed that their long-established control
over certain matters was being challenged. They also were
alarmed that the shahs were selling control over important
Persian assets to foreigners. The rulers sold interests in Persian
banks and railroads, for example, to European entrepreneurs.
Business and social affairs seemed increasingly contrary to the
ideals of Islam. But what could the ulema do against the shah
and his formidable military?
In the early 1890s, these dissidents proved that a compelling
statement could be made with their pocketbooks. Nasir al-Din
Shah, the shah at the time, sold an English company a monopoly
over tobacco sales in his country. The agreement granted the
Imperial Tobacco Corporation all rights to tobacco production
and sales in Persia. Roused to fury by Shiite leaders, the people
staged demonstrations against the British monopoly in what
became known as the Tobacco Rebellion. The leading Muslim
cleric, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, brought the issue to a head by
declaring that the use of tobacco by Muslims was illegal.
Persians—traditionally heavy users of tobacco products—
stopped smoking. The Persian tobacco market collapsed, the
shah was forced to withdraw the agreement, and the British lost
their monopoly.
This was no minor footnote in Iranian history books. It was,
in a sense, a turning point. It showed that the ulema—not the
government—commanded the genuine mood of the Persian
The “Land Between East and West” 13