Socratic Subject Matter is Virtue
Unlike the emphasis on skill development that constitutes the goal of contemporary student-centered
learning, the relationship between the individual and virtue sits at the heart of Socratic student-
centered learning. In placing the individual at the center, Socrates proves to be an innovator whose
pedagogical greatness“is based on another innovation: he made his pupils do their own thinking
and introduced the interchange of ideas as a safeguard against self-deception.”^15 Given the concern
with the virtue of the individual, one can conclude that the worst form of self-deception consists of
thinking oneself virtuous when, in actuality, one is not. This explains why virtue in the Socratic
sense requires one to“do the right thing”and be able to“say why it is right.”^16 Ultimately, Socrates
seeks to understand virtue as a“phenomenon”that applies beyond the moral tests that arise in a
temple, on a battlefield, or at a feast.^17 To see and to understand why something is right,“one must
face the test on inquiry.”^18
Socratic Method as Refutation
Plato never discusses theelenchusin any sustained way. The closest he comes to doing so is in the
Meno(86c–87c), thePhaedo(99d–101e), and theRepublic(532b–d).^19 One must look elsewhere
for a model ofelenticquestioning and such a model is provided by watching Socrates in action.
The starting point of theelenticquestioning is the opinion of the respondent. Seeskin writes:
In Socratic conversation, true and primary principles are the outcome of the intellectual
process, never the starting point. Truth is something the participants in the discussion seek out.
The starting point is the body of opinion the respondent brings to the discussion. But these
opinions are not starting points in the sense that their truth is taken for granted; they are not
premises. Rather they are things to be examined and, if needed, overturned.^20By startingelenchuswith individual opinion, Socrates takes a fundamentally practical position.
The purpose of Socratic inquiry has more to do with showing the respondent the pathway (hodos)
“to a philosophical stance rather than a way of certifying the truth of various propositions.”^21 It is a
method for getting individuals to examine their own lives and, in turn, to lead better, more virtuous
lives. This is only possible, however, when one understands why“they [one’s original propositions]
are false”and to recognize that one is in a better position to seek the truth as a consequence of being
refuted or shamed.^22 It is not the job ofelenticquestioning to replace false propositions with true
propositions.
The student-centered quality ofelenticquestioning is obvious in its aim as persuasion is“not
aimed at a general audience but at the individual respondent: its purpose is to get him to change his
mind.”^23 Socrates’focus on the respondent is so strong that he rejects Polus’s appeals to popular
opinion as“worthless, as far as truth is concerned, for it might happen sometimes that an individual
is brought down by the false testimony of many reputable people”(Gorgias, 472a).^24 Ultimately,
the purpose of refutation is to help the respondent to“remove the obstacles which prevent him from
being perfectly satisfied with his own response. Unless these responses are subject to criticism, he
will never know whether they express his real convictions.”^25 This is something the respondent
must discover on her own. If one were to come to this conclusion in any other way, it would“be
tantamount to putting sight into blind eyes”(Republic, 518b).
The implications of this for how one understands the concept of teaching are profound. Socrates
famously denies being anyone’s teacher in theApology(33a) because the respondent is truly her
own teacher.^26 For Socrates, the respondent is not actually ignorant as she already possesses
knowledge. The problem is that she is having difficulty accessing this information. Thus, one needs
96 Jordon B. Barkalow