reasoning with evidence. If they are in disagreement, before moving on to explanation and evid-
ence, she must first demonstrate that she understands the position of the other student. The DBs thus
facilitate consideration of a particular topic from a variety of perspectives. The sixth rule places
responsibility for progress in the conversation on the shoulders of all participants as anyone who
has lost sight of the question or of the thread of discussion should seek the help of others to clarify
where the group stands. It is rarely the case that I have to remind students of this as, generally
speaking, they do this themselves.
The seventh rule requires that abstract statements be grounded in concrete experience in order to
illuminate such statements. Like Socrates, I want to avoid the high-minded response of the sophists.
This is why students are required to support the claims they make about a text in the DBs with
textual evidence and why, during class discussion, students may be asked to connect what they say
to a specific passage in the text, or to another text read over the course of the semester, or provide a
real-world example.
Finally, inquiry into relevant questions continues as long as participants hold conflicting views or
if they have not achieved clarity. Given the limits of time, it is not always possible to satisfy this rule.
As much as I might like to continue a particular conversation, there are other parts of the dialog and
other texts to consider over the course of a semester. Fortunately, as the examples of classroom
discussion provided above show, we are able to identify and focus on recurring themes which
allows us to return to previously unanswered questions and to do so from a better-informed pos-
ition. Even if the questions remain unsettled, this is far from being a problem. Our inability to
provide an answer illustrates an important reality about human inquiry–answers are never com-
plete or locked in stone. Thus, whereas Socrates and his interlocutors may not have succeeded in
arriving at an understanding of courage, an understanding of the Socratic method allows Plato’s
reader to consider the possibility that theLachesdoes, in fact, answer the question of what con-
stitutes courage. An understanding of the Socratic method, moreover, suggests to the reader where
she should look (the example of Socrates) in pursuit of this question. All of this places the reader in a
position where she can consider her own understanding of courage in light of the argument and
understanding provided in theLaches.
Conclusion
Contemporary theories of student-centered learning only educate half of the person. With their
emphasis on skill development, these theories focus on preparing students to compete in the
increasingly competitive twenty-first-century marketplace. While higher education must prepare
students for these realities, to focus exclusively on skill development through project-based
learning fails to remember that humans aspire to more than a vocation. By effectively removing
anything higher from the idea of higher education, contemporary theories of student-centered
learning fail to prepare students to be good citizens and persons. From a political perspective,
contemporary theories pose a threat to democratic government as they ignore the fact that demo-
cracies are the regime type that“stands and falls by virtue.”^49
To return the higher to higher education and assist students in their pursuit of the noble, an
alternative account of student-centered learning is necessary. As argued here, such an account is
provided by the Socratic method. Like contemporary theories, the Socratic view of student-centered
learning focuses on individual learners, rejects the lecture and passive student-learning model,
requires students to consider topics from multiple perspectives, and encourages students to be
responsible for their own education. Unlike the contemporary theories, Socratic student-centered
learning recognizes that students have needs beyondthe acquisition of skills and identifies the subject
matter and means of pursuing these needs.
This is evident in the analysis of Plato’sLachesprovided here. Through his depiction of Socrates’
engagement with Laches and Nicias, Plato provides the reader with a powerful argument for the
The Courage of the Socratic Method 107