74 A FOUNDATION FOR HISTORY
report, is conceivably the Rashtrakuta king of the Deccan, Govinda III
(c. 793-814). More likely is that "Balhara" stands in for an Indic ruler
sympathetic to the Arab Muslim polities. This theme of closely allied
polities in Hind is dominant in the Arab geographies, includfog the
most influential work of Mas'udi.^64
Similarly, Abu'l-Hasan Mas'udi (d. 957) claimed to have traveled
widely, reaching Hind in 915 CE. His Muruj ad-Dahab wa Ma'adin
Jawahar (Book of the Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems) devotes a
section to Multan, where there are "one hundred thousand villages and
estates" surrounding it.^65 He reports that in the town is an idol made
of aloewood. To this, "the inhabitants of Sind and Hind perform pil-
grimages by thousands, from. the most distant places; they carry money,
precious stones, aloes, and other sorts of perfumes."^66 Mas'udi men-
tions two stratagems that connect the Muslim rulers of Multan to
their neighbors: one of negotiated existence and one of treaties and
agreements. He also calls Balhara "the greatest of the kings of Hind in
our time" and adds that the other kings of Hind "turn in their prayers
towards him" in his capital of Mankir. This great king, according to
Mas'udi, is a great friend of Muslims, allows flourishing mosques, and
does not require Muslims to pay taxes. Mas'udi travels from Multan
to Mansura to Cambay, which he declares is well known in Baghdad
because of the sandals it produces.
Like Mas'udi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Istakhri (d. 951) may also have vis-
ited Sind. In his Kitab Masalik wa'l-Mamalik (Book of Roads and
Kingdoms), Istakhri speaks of the idol ·located in the center of Multan.
The idol, Istakhri notes, is seated and wears a red garment that obscures
all but its ruby eyes. A crown of gold rests upon its head. He writes
that the Muslim realm adjoins the realm of the king Balhara, who per-
mitted the Friday sermon in his land. Istakhri's pupil Ibn Hawkal (d.
after 973) writes in his Kitab Masalik wa'l-Mamalik that he met Istakhri
in Sind. Ibn Hawkal's list of cities for Hind and Sind is completely
identical, though he claims that these are cities he knows personally.
He also mentions the adjoining king of Hind, Balhara, in whose
kingdom the Muslim Friday sermon is read. His account of Multan is
also identical to Istakhri's (including the idol that acts as a hostage for
the Muslim governor), though he adds two key details: first that the
pilgrims visiting Multan must pay a tribute to the governor, and