1
Introduction
1.1. The Task
Today’s multicultural and multireligious world requires new personal
attitudes and societal strategies to enable peaceful coexistence among
different convictions. In Western democracies, toleration has been
the prevailing attitude and societal framework promoting such coex-
istence. While most democratic thinkers agree that toleration con-
tinues to be vitally important in our times, many argue that it needs to
be complemented by other attitudes and strategies.^1
During the last twenty-five years, mutual recognition has not
infrequently been put forward as an attitude that complements tol-
eration.^2 While both recognition and toleration assume a lasting
disagreement between two or more parties, the attitude of recognizing
another person or group typically means something ‘more’than
mere toleration. This‘more’may consist in a commitment to work
together, respect other convictions, and approve a general societal or
ideological framework in which the coexistence takes place. For
instance, recognizing the practice of Islam in a Western European
democratic society does not only mean that Muslims are tolerated,
but that their religious and educational practices are supported and
that they are actively integrated into the society.
Acts of recognition are normally mutual. In a cultural integration
process, for instance, Muslims are expected to respond positively to
the acts of the broader society. There may, however, also be cases of
one-sided recognition. Normally, recognition pertains to persons and
(^1) Forst 2003; Galeotti 2005; Furedi 2011.
(^2) For some overall evaluations, see Thompson 2006; McNay 2008; McBride 2013;
and Ikäheimo 2014.