Mindfulness and Yoga in Schools A Guide for Teachers and Practitioners

298 • PART iii: YogA foR EduCATing foR SElf-REgulATion And EngAgEMEnT

Overall, it is theorized that the four core practices of school-based yoga (i.e., posture,
breathing, relaxation, and meditation) increase mind-body awareness, self-regulation, and
physical fitness (Butzer et al., 2016). Specifically, it is hypothesized that mind-body aware-
ness is increased via improved mindfulness, increased attention, improved concentration
and cognitive functioning, and enhanced awareness of the students’ individual sense of self
as well as their social selves (Butzer et al., 2016). Improvements in self-regulation occur via
increases in emotion regulation, stress regulation, resilience over time, increased equanim-
ity, and improved psychological self-efficacy. Third, improved physical fitness occurs via
improvements in flexibility, strength, balance, respiratory function, and a strong sense of
physical self-efficacy (Butzer et al., 2016). Butzer et al. (2016) stated that the body of research
suggests that providing yoga within the school curriculum may be an effective way to help
students develop self-regulation, mind-body awareness, and physical fitness. They reason
that these effects may foster additional social and emotional learning competencies and pos-
itive student outcomes such as improved behaviors, mental state, health, and performance
(i.e., improved mood, well-being, positive behaviors, physical health, cognitive and aca-
demic performance, relationships and quality of life, and decreased risk for psychological
disorders and negative behaviors; Butzer et al., 2016). In his conceptual model Khalsa (2016)
takes a broader perspective illustrating how these key mechanism (i.e., mind-body aware-
ness, self-regulation, and physical fitness) improve global human function in each of the
ways reported by Butzer et al. (2016), adding increases in a sense of life purpose, meaning,
and spirituality (see Chapter 9 of this text for a discussion on secular yoga and spirituality).
The new model presented by Khalsa (2016) acknowledges the importance of researchers
exploring aspects of yoga outcomes related to meaning and purpose in life as well as spiri-
tuality (i.e., a need for purpose and to live our lives in fulfillment of that purpose; Khalsa,
2016; Madden, 2015).

Fitness

↑Flexibilty

↑Strength

↑Coordination/Balance

↑Respiratory Function

↑Self-Efficacy

Self-Regulation

↑Emotion Regulation

↑Stress Regulation

↑Resilience

↑Equanimity

↑Self-Efficacy

Awareness

↑Attention

↑Mindfulness

↑Concentration

↑Cognition

↑Meta-Cognition

Spirituality

↑Transcendence

↑Unitive State

↑Flow

↑T ransformation

↑Life Meaning/Purpose

Yoga Practices

Postures, Breathing, Relaxation, Meditation

Global Human Functionality

↑Physical and Mental Health, ↑Physical, Mental, Emotional Performance,

↑Positive Behavior Change, ↑Social Responsibility, Values, Relationships,

↑Quality of Life, ↑Life Purpose and Meaning, ↑Spirituality

figuRE 13.3 Conceptualizing school-based yoga effects.

Source: Sat Bir Singh Khalsa, 2016; adapted from Butzer et al., 2016.