CHAPTER 13: SCHool-BASEd YogA PRogRAMS • 299An oVERViEW of ouTCoMES foR YogA in SCHoolS
As the theoretical model sets the stage for future research, it also provides a framework for
understanding the research that has been completed to date. It is important to note that
there is a larger body of research on yoga for children and youth with fewer studies based
specifically in schools. Research to date presents with a relatively diverse array of inter-
ventions using various forms, aspects, and dosages of yoga and few are manualized yoga
interventions (e.g., Klein & Cook-Cottone, 2013; Serwacki & Cook-Cottone, 2012). For many
years, there were simply too few studies to validly compare outcomes across studies or
to meaningfully aggregate outcomes using systematic reviews or meta-analyses. At this
point, there have been three major reviews of the research on yoga in schools: Serwacki and
Cook-Cottone (2012), Ferreira-Vorkapic et al. (2015), and Khalsa and Butzer (2016).
First, in 2012, my research team published the first review of the extant research on
yoga in schools. The objective of our review was to examine the evidence for delivering
yoga-based interventions in schools to provide a solid sense of where the research stood.
We conducted an electronic literature search to identify peer-reviewed, published studies in
which yoga and a meditative component (breathing practices or meditation) were taught to
youths in a school setting. Pilot studies, single cohort, quasi-experimental, and randomized
clinical trials were considered. We used three independent reviewers to code studies for key
components and quality using multiple evaluative criteria (e.g., Did the study describe the
method of randomization? Was the sample size justified? Was there a description of with-
drawals and drop outs? Was there an intention-to-treat analysis? Did the study report treat-
ment integrity? Was a manual used? Were outcomes well described? Did outcome measures
have good reliability? [Serwacki & Cook-Cottone, 2012]).
We identified twelve published studies. Samples for which yoga was implemented as
an intervention included youths with autism, intellectual disability, learning disability, and
emotional disturbance, as well as youths without special needs (Serwacki & Cook-Cottone,
2012). We found that although the effects of participating in school-based yoga programs
appeared to be beneficial for the most part for special needs students, findings included
reduced stress, improved cognitive functioning, greater self and social confidence, improved
communication and contribution to the classroom, and improved attention and concentra-
tion (Serwacki & Cook-Cottone, 2012). For typically developing students, participation in
a school-based yoga program was associated with decreased body dissatisfaction, anxi-
ety, negative behaviors, cognitive disturbances (e.g., rumination and intrusive thoughts),
impulsivity, emotional and physical arousal as well as increased perceived self-concept and
emotional balance (Serwacki & Cook-Cottone, 2012).
The studies reviewed, however, were of predominantly low quality. The methodologi-
cal limitations included lack of randomization, small samples, limited detail regarding the
intervention, and statistical ambiguities, which curtailed the ability to provide definitive
conclusions or recommendations. We concluded that the findings spoke to the need for
greater methodological rigor and an increased understanding of the mechanisms of success
for school-based yoga interventions (Serwacki & Cook-Cottone, 2012).
In 2015, Ferreira-Vorkapic et al. reviewed the literature and conducted a meta-analysis.
These authors reported that an extensive search was conducted for studies published
between 1980 and October 31, 2014 (PubMed, PsycInfo, Embase, ISI, and the Cochrane
Library; Ferreira-Vorkapic et al., 2015). After identifying 48 studies, the authors excluded
dissertations, special issues and reviews, unpublished studies, studies with intervention or