52 MAY/JUNE 2019As Pompey was gathering accolades in the east,
the bond that Crassus had established with Ju-
lius Caesar bore fruit. After he returned to Rome
from his governorship in Spain, Caesar acted as
an architect of an alliance (known as the First
Triumvirate) among the three great men. Caesar
was able to convince both Pompey and Crassus
that if they supported his candidacy to the con-
sulship in 59 B.C., he would favor their interests.
The three could work together to subvert any
opposition in the Roman Senate. This agreement
was not strictly illegal, but it did imply a certain
disdain for republican institutions, and was ea-
gerly denounced by their enemies, such as Cato
and Cicero, when the agreement became public.An Unnecessary War
The consulate in Rome was usually followed by
a governorship in foreign provinces. As a part of
his agreement with Crassus and Pompey, Caesar
took command of Roman forces in Gaul when
his consulship was up. In the same way, after
Pompey and Crassus were co-consuls in 55 B.C.,
Pompey took command of territory in HispaniaT
HE UNFULFILLED DESIRE for military glory and riches
motivated Crassus’ ill-fated invasion of Parthia, which
brought him defeat, shame, and ridicule. Surenas, the
Parthian general who defeated him, killed Crassus, re-
moved his head and one hand, and sent them to his king, Orodes II.
Killing Crassus was not enough; the defeated Romans were fur-
ther humiliated by the victorious Parthians. Plutarch related how
a Roman prisoner who resembled Crassus was forced to dress
like a woman and paraded before the victors while they jeered,
calling him “Imperator.” Following him, women sang obscene
verses about the cowardice and effeminacy of the fallen Roman
general. A later tradition holds that Crassus was executed by
having molten gold poured down his throat. This story may be
a misreading of the account by Dio Cassius, which seems to
indicate that the Parthians did indeed pour molten gold down
his throat to mock his unquenchable thirst for wealth—but only
after he was already dead.HUMILIATING
THE ROMANS
“THE DEATH OF MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS” SHOWS CRASSUS BEFORE GOLD IS POURED DOWN HIS
THROAT. LANCELOT BLONDEEL, 16TH CENTURY. GROENINGE MUSEUM, BRUGES
BRIDGEMAN/ACI