DK - The American Civil War

from skulking away. When close
enough to the enemy position, infantry
would charge with bayonets fixed,
either putting the defenders to flight or
engaging in hand-to-hand combat,
often grasping their muskets by the
barrel and wielding them like clubs.
Although Civil War operations
sometimes approximated this ideal of
an infantry attack, mostly they did not.
Terrain was against it. European tactics
were designed for fighting on open
ground; in the swamps and forests of
the American wilderness a looser style

Developments in military technology under

way at the time of the Civil War would

make offensive infantry tactics even more

problematic over the next 50 years.

REPEATING RIFLES

The infantry weapons that would make the rifle

musket obsolete were breech-loading

rapid-fire guns using metal cartridges.

Repeater rifles, especially the Spencer rifle, were

used quite widely in the Union army by the end

of the war. The Spencer could fire 20 rounds

a minute, compared with the maximum three

rounds of a muzzle-loader. The Gatling gun,

used experimentally in the Civil War, was

capable of firing 200 rounds a minute and

heralded the era of automatic weapons.

TRENCH WARFARE

In the decades after the Civil War, artillery

also became dramatically more efficient

in range, rate of fire, and the explosive power

of shells. Along with the use of barbed wire

to protect entrenchments, these weapons

developments led to the trench warfare of World

War I, where the same fundamental infantry

tactics were employed, with even higher

casualty rates for even less result.

designed to discourage them from

halting to return fire. By advancing

swiftly and relentlessly, the columns

were expected to smash a hole in

Confederate defensive positions, and on

occasion they succeeded. But as field

fortifications became more elaborate,

protected by abbatis (barricades made

from trees piled on top of each other),

successful frontal infantry assaults

became almost impossible.

The value of maneuverability

The answer to the stalemate imposed by

the superiority of defensive firepower

was maneuver. By marching around

the flank or to the rear of enemy

defenses, troops could attack from an

unexpected quarter or force an enemy

withdrawal. Well-drilled troops, capable

of swift marching maneuvers, were

responsible for some striking victories.

Yet even such a master of maneuver as

General Robert E. Lee could find no

alternative to launching “Pickett’s

Charge,” the notorious frontal assault at

Gettysburg in 1863. The trench warfare

of the late Civil War made frontal

assaults deadly, and deprived both sides

of the freedom to maneuver. The Civil

War thus drifted into a tactical

stalemate decided by attrition.

AFTER

Standard issue rifle musket
The 1861 Springfield percussion rifle musket was the
standard infantry weapon throughout the war. It had a
40-in (101.6-cm) barrel, weighed 9lb (4kg), and its
range and accuracy made it popular with the troops.

FIGHTING ON FOOT

of fighting was inevitable. Troops

were often inadequately disciplined,

especially early in the war. The more

likely sequence of events in an

encounter was that one side would

advance and fire, the other side would

rush forward from their defensive

position to fire, and a general melee

ensued. But above all, the traditional

European method of infantry attack

was in crisis because improvements in

artillery and the adoption of the rifle

musket had tipped the balance

decisively against the attacker.

Defensive superiority

Men advancing in line shoulder-to-

shoulder were hopelessly vulnerable

to infantry volleys and cannon firing

canister and grapeshot. A straightforward

method for reducing casualties was the

adoption of a looser formation, with

men spread out as in a skirmish line.

In contrast, defenders were almost

invulnerable until overrun, especially

if they had dug rifle pits or found a

wall or bank to shelter behind.

Soldiers found their own ways to

preserve their lives, exploiting cover,

firing in a kneeling or prone position,

and reloading lying on their backs.

Experienced troops learned to lie low

when fire was intense, then advance in

short rushes when defensive volleys

faltered, with colleagues covering the

move with suppressive fire. The

disadvantage of this method was that

once troops had “gone to ground,” they

were likely to stay there if the defensive

fire remained hot, especially if they

judged success unlikely.

In 1864, in an effort to restore the

momentum of frontal assault, Union

troops were driven forward in tight

columns, with no percussion caps

pre-placed in their guns—a measure

Bayonet charge

This Winslow Homer illustration shows an attack on an

enemy line early in the war. On the left in the background,

infantrymen advance in orderly ranks; in the foreground a

bayonet charge develops into hand-to-hand fighting.

Union trenches at Vicksburg

During sieges, troops dug elaborate trench systems that

discouraged attack. Although earthworks were rarely as

salubrious as those shown here, once in a trench a

soldier was often reluctant to leave it.

The factor by which firepower was

improved when flintlock muskets

were replaced by rifle muskets,

increasing both the effective firing

range of Civil War infantry and the

rate of fire.

5

“I have seen pictures of battles—

they would all be in line,

standing in a nice level field

fighting ... but it isn’t so.”

UNION PRIVATE WILLIAM BREARLEY, LETTER FROM ANTIETAM, SEPTEMBER 1862