structured fashion; instead,Analectswas compiled over a fifty-year period that pro-
duced twenty books. Today, this collection continues to exert considerable authority
on East Asian values and behavior.Analectsteaches basic Confucian values and vir-
tues, such as correct governance, goodness, moral development, respect, honor, filial
piety, duty, humanity, propriety, and ritual. The ideals are presented in the form of
aphorisms, sayings, stories, and proverbs. For example, when expounding on how to
treat other people,Analectsincludes the following advice:“In guiding a state of a
thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what
you say; avoid excesses in expenditure and love your fellow beings; employ the labor
of the common people only in the right season.”^248 The importance of this work to
Chinese culture was demonstrated when quotes fromAnalectswere read by hundreds
of performers at the opening ceremonies of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing.Cultural Expressions of Confucianism
The Chinese philosopher Tu Wei-ming wrote,“The fundamental concern of the
Confucian tradition is learning to be human.”This one line could be a summary of
what Confucius believed about human nature. Because he assumed the best in all
people, he taught that a proper and suitable foundation for society is based on respect
for human dignity. That dignity means respecting the proper hierarchy in social rela-
tionships among family members and within a community. Confucius set forth a series
of ideals that describe his thoughts regarding these relationships. An understanding of
some of these teachings will help you appreciate East Asian perceptions and interac-
tion patterns.Jen(Humanism)
Most scholars agree that the idea ofjenis the cornerstone of what Confucius taught.
This core concept is directly related to the notion of reciprocity. In simple terms,jen
“is the ideal relationship which should pertain between individuals.”^249 In Confucian
philosophy,jenis often referred to as the“humane principle.”Essentially, it is based
on“Deep empathy or compassion for other humans.”^250 This fundamental belief in
the integrity of all people is a reflection of the premise that people are by nature
good, andjenis meant to mirror that goodness. Some attributes associated withjen
are benevolence, kindness, and compassion. Regardless of one’s status or personality,
conflict can and should be avoided. In its place, people should strive for harmony in
their interactions with other people, be they within the family, government, or daily
interactions.Li(Rituals, Rites, Proprieties, Conventions)
Liis a companion virtue tojenin that it also relates to the outward expression of good
manners. It is often thought of as the rules to be followed so that“things”are done
correctly. Since its original inception,“the term was extended from narrowly defined
religious rites to include all formal conduct that structures interpersonal activities.”^251
The words associated with li are “propriety,”“etiquette,”“appropriateness,” and
“conformity.”In contemporary times,licould be as straightforward as not interrupting
the person who is talking or making sure that your bow is performed properly.154 CHAPTER 4•Worldview: Cultural Explanations of Life and Death
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