working and socializing with other
Japanese, no established “correct”
way of dealing with foreigners has
evolved. The Japanese uncertainty
toward foreigners continues today,
as evident in contemporary attitudes
toward immigration. Foreign resi-
dents in Japan in 2014 represented
less than 2 percent of the popula-
tion.^71 Despite a rapidly declining population and the attendant economic and
social dilemmas, there is little public support for increased immigration. As one
source states,“Simply put, there is a deep cultural aversion to any immigration
whatsoever.”^72
Another important link between Japan’s long history and its contemporary
cultural values is the Tokugawa legacy. In the early 1600s, following a period of
debilitating civil wars, Japan was politically unified under the leadership of a
military-style governor (shogun). The Japanese population, much of which resided
in or around castle towns, was divided into four specific, hierarchical groups—
samurai, farmer, artisan, and merchant (shi-no-ko-sho)—each with its own set of
subgroups and hierarchy (the Imperial Court was above these, and several lower sta-
tus groups were below).^73 The central government specified strict codes of behavior
to regulate the conduct of every aspect of personal and public life. In other words,
the Japanese formed a culture where in almost every context there was asingle cor-
rect wayto perform a task, be it sitting, eating, dressing, living, or even thinking,
and any other type of behavior was considered deviant.^74 The objective of these
protocols was to ensure external peace andinternal group stability by subordinating
the individual to the central authority and the greater social order. Societal stability
was the paramount objective, and this continues to be a central focus of Japanese
social activity, demonstrated by an adherence to established norms, a resistance to
rapidchange,andanaversiontorisk,^75 all of which point to a strong inclination to
avoid uncertainty.
The Tokugawa-era castle town residentsrelied on benevolent feudal lords for
protection and civil administration. In return for these benefits, the people pro-
fessed a strong loyalty to the warlords (daimyo). This cultural characteristic is evi-
dent in modern Japanese social relationships, where workers continue to
demonstrate dedication and loyalty to their school, company, and other in-groups.
Modern corporations and government institutions became substitutes for the castle
town and have traditionally offered lifetime employment, although three decades of
economic stagnation have significantly altered this practice. Feudalism also incul-
cated in the Japanese an acceptance of discipline, sacrifice, and conformity. People
were required to conduct every aspect of their lives in a highly prescribed manner,
depending on their social class membership. These conditions have been translated
into contemporary Japanese dedication tosocietal and organizational formality and
an acceptance of higher authority, status differentials, and conformity to group
expectations.^76
As noted previously, a culture’s history is just one of many sources that
contribute to the character of its people. This concept is demonstrated in the
Japanese attitude toward collectivism, orgroup orientation. Here again, the link
between culture and geography is evident. In total land area, Japan is slightlyCONSIDER THIS
How do Japan’s demographic separation, geographic isolation,
and sense of self-consciousness manifest themselves during inter-
action with strangers of other cultures?178 CHAPTER 5•Cultural History: Precursor to the Present and Future
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