in Europe, each of these great societies made unique contributions to modern
Mexican culture. Collectively, they constitute an important part of contemporary
Mexican worldview and identity. Even today, their legends, artistic heritages, archi-
tecture, and foods remain“an integral part of the [Mexican] national identity.”^121
Mexicans are extremely proud of this period of their history not only for its achieve-
ments in agriculture, creative arts, and the establishment of large urban settlements but
also for scientific advancements. For example, the Maya, who were advanced in astron-
omy and mathematics, developed the concept of zero independently from its earlier use
in Mesopotamia^122 and created one of the world’s most accurate calendars. Mexicans
are also aware of the many accomplishments of the Aztec, whose social and religious
structures, as well as art, have survived for thousands of years.
The pre-Columbian period was brought to an abrupt end by theSpanish Conquest,
which began in 1519 when Hernando Cortés invaded the Yucatan Peninsula on
the southeast coast of Mexico. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors resulted in the
wholesale death, destruction, and subjugation of the native inhabitants. Using the
advantages of naval power, horses, guns, interpreters, and duplicitous alliances with
the different tribes, Cortés eventually defeated the indigenous people. Especially dev-
astating were the diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox, to which the
natives had no immunity.^123 It is estimated that slayings, starvation, disease, and
overwork decimated about 90 percent of the native population by 1650.^124 The
Spanish occupation of Mexico and subsequent colonization profoundly changed the
country and the people forever.
To illustrate this transformation, five major changes arising from Spain’s military
conquest of the land and peoples are examined. The first three changes have proved
to be enduring and comprehensive. Beginning with the first arrivals, including Cortés
himself, the Spanish were quick to intermix with the native women, a process (mesti-
zaje) that created the mestizo (mixed-race) category, which today comprises the
majority of Mexico’s population. The Spanish conquerors also introduced the Spanish
language, which marginalized and ultimately largely displaced the native languages.
The third profound change was the introduction of Catholicism.^125 In the beginning,
it was left to the Spanish army to destroy Indian idols and replace them with Chris-
tian crosses. It was the Spanish friars, following in the wake of the soldiers, who
spread throughout the countryside to convert the conquered natives. The conversions
proved rather easy because the Indians adapted the new religion to meet their needs,
and both cultures“believed in an afterlife and a world created by god(s).”^126 The
fourth consequence of the Spanish colonization of Mexico was the development of a
rigid social class system that some historians see as imposing great hardship on the
indigenous population. As Foster observed,“The Spanish caste system spread illiter-
acy, racism, and official corruption through the land, setting one group against the
others.”^127 The fifth effect of Spain’s occupation was the granting of vast tracts of
land to the Spanish conquerors. This created a large status and socioeconomic gap
between the upper and lower classes in much of Mexico and engendered a highly
stratified social order—characteristics that
remain a part of Mexican society.^128
For almost three hundred years Mexico
suffered under Spanish rule as a feudal and
deeply Catholic country where landed aris-
tocrats dominated a population of primarily
agrarian peasants under what was calledREMEMBER THIS
Knowledge of Mexico’s history can provide insight into the
Mexican worldview, enhance mutual understanding, and
improve communicative interactions.186 CHAPTER 5•Cultural History: Precursor to the Present and Future
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