tribal organization was vividly demonstrated in both Iraq and Afghanistan, where U.S.
forces belatedly realized the need to work through tribal leaders.
The history of Islamic civilization can easily be oversimplified into a tale of
conquest and colonization. One can also use that same lens to view the history of
Western civilization. As Lewis indicates,“From the end of the fifteenth century, the
peoples of Europe embarked on a vast movement of expansion—commercial, politi-
cal, cultural, and demographic—which by the twentieth century had brought almost
the whole world into the orbit of European civilization.”^169
Space limitations preclude a discussion of the lasting achievements in the
sciences, arts, literature, philosophy,and architecture produced by Islam. Those
accomplishments originated in the early Islamic centers of civilization, where art,
scholarship, craftsmanship, and intercultural borrowing were encouraged. Unifica-
tion enabled the rapid dispersal of advancements in any branch of knowledge
throughout the Islamic realm. Whatever your personal history and culture, it likely
bears an Islamic influence. Muslims have been coming to the United States since
well before the nineteenth century. They were among the early explorers, traders,
and settlers. It is also estimated that Muslims constituted 14 to 20 percent of the
slaves brought from Africa to the Americas.^170 Words we use every day, such as
algebra,average,lemon,andmagazine,haveArabicorigins.Andthenexttimeyou
are sipping your favorite coffee drink, recall that coffee, along with coffeehouses,
was introduced to the West through Islam.
Today, Muslims look back on Islamic history with feelings of both pride and discom-
fiture. Pride is taken in the fact that while Europe was mired in the Dark Ages, Islam
represented“the most advanced civilization in the world.”^171 However, as witnessed by
the uprisings and continuing unrest across North Africa and the Middle East, many
Muslims are greatly dissatisfied with current social conditions in their countries. With
few exceptions, Muslim nations in North Africa and the Middle East are plagued by a
host of similar conditions arising from inept, authoritarian rulers, conditions that have
hampered the ability to improve living standards and participate in democratic institu-
tions. Common problems include repressive authoritarian regimes, official corruption,
absence of viable democratic processes, biased social justice systems, stagnant economic
development, lack of women’s equality, and increased urbanization.^172 Moreover, many
young males see little opportunity for economic or social advancement in a region that,
according to the United Nations, has the world’s highest youth unemployment rate.^173
These conditions have undermined many of the traditional social conventions. For
instance, before marriage, a young Arab male is expected to have sufficient economic
resources to afford a place to live, a prerequisite made increasingly difficult or even
impossible for a large number of young men. This has resulted in disillusion with state
leaders and state-sponsored institutions. For some, it has strengthened their connection
to Islam.
Much of the turmoil besetting Islam today is a result of its struggle with moder-
nity.^174 Arising in the premodern era, Islamic institutions were designed to combine
religious, social, and political functions for the betterment of all Muslims. This objec-
tive was achieved, to various degrees, under the consolidated rule of the caliphs.
However, the“repudiation of the Caliphate by the Turks”^175 brought to an end the
unity that had been a central characteristic of Islam for over a millennium. But unlike
Europe, which successfully transitioned from papal governance to independent demo-
cratic nation-states during the Enlightenment, the Arab countries have been unable
to make the needed changes. For a variety of reasons, many Muslims connect Arabic194 CHAPTER 5•Cultural History: Precursor to the Present and Future
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