part of the universe. For very different reasons, many Europeans also have a dualistic
(good/evil) approach to human nature. Specifically, they believe that while we might
be born with a propensity for evil, people can become good through learning and
education.Good. Perhaps the strongest view of the innate goodness of human nature is found in
the philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism. According to the Lu Wang school
of Confucianism,“Human nature is originally good.”Contemporary Chinese scholar
Pei-Jung Fu echoes this belief when he writes,“there is solid foundation for claiming
that Confucius regarded human nature as tending toward goodness.”^33 Buddhism also
maintains that you are born pure and are closest to what is called“loving-kindness”
when you first enter this world. Hence, people are good, but their culture often makes
them evil.
Cutting across the arguments concerning human nature, whether it is good or
evil, is the question of the essential rationality of human nature. Throughout
history there has been tension between those who believe in fate or mystic
powers and those who feel that thoughtand reason can solve any problem and
discover any truth. Imagine, for a moment, your perceptions of reality if you are
French and take the rational approach reflected in Descartes’philosophy or if
you are an American Indian and believe that external forces control much of
your thinking and behavior. To cite another example, the Hindu relies on mys-
ticism, intuition, and spiritual awareness to understand the nature of reality.
A belief in fate, as opposed to one that stresses free will, is bound to yield dif-
ferent conclusions.Person/Nature Orientation
Different ideas about the relationship between humanity and nature produce distinct
frames of reference for human desires, attitudes, and behaviors. In Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck’s cultural value taxonomy, three types of relationships characterize how
different cultures relate to and interact with nature.Humans Subject to Nature. At one end of the scale is the view that humans are subject
to nature. Cultures holding this orientation believe the most powerful forces of life
are beyond human control. Whether the force is a god, fate, or magic, it cannot be
overcome and must, therefore, be accepted. This perspective is found in India and
parts of South America. For the Hindu, because everything is part of a unified
force,“the world of distinct and separate objects and processes is a manifestation
of a more fundamental reality that is undivided and unconditional.”^34 This“one-
ness”with the world helps create a vision of a world operating in harmony. In
Mexico and among Mexican Americans, there is a strong tie to Catholicism and
the role of fate in controlling life and nature, which leads to a general acceptance
of things as they are.Harmony with Nature. The middle or cooperative view is widespread and often associ-
ated with East Asians. In Japan and Thailand, there is a perception that nature is part
of life and not a hostile force waiting to be subdued. This orientation affirms that
people should, in every way possible, live in harmony with nature. To cite another216 CHAPTER 6•Cultural Values: Road Maps for Behavior
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