form of nonverbal communication. Not only do seating arrangements signal power
relations, as was the case with the Israeli and Turkish examples, but research points
out that perceptions related to leadership, dominance, sex roles, and introversion and
extraversion are influenced by seating arrangements.^134
Notice that when you are a member of a group in the United States, people tend
to talk with those opposite them rather than those seated beside them. And in most
instances, the person sitting at the head of the table is the leader. These seating
“rules”are not the same arrangements used in other cultures. For example, in some
Asian cultures students do not sit close to their teachers or stand near their superiors;
the extended distance demonstrates deference and esteem. This regard for admiration
and ritual can also be seen in China. Because of their Confucian background, the
Chinese respect proper etiquette and ceremony. Therefore, seating arrangements are
frequently dictated by cultural and historical norms, particularly at formal events
such as banquets, and diplomatic and business meetings. At banquets, which are
very common in China, seating arrangements place the honored person (often
decided by seniority and age) facing east or facing the entrance to the hall. The
higher a person’s status, the closer they sit to the person of honor.^135 At business
meetings the Chinese experience alienation and uneasiness when they face someone
directly or sit opposite them at a desk or table.^136 If you view a news story about
American diplomats meeting with government officials from China, you might
observe that the meeting is taking place with people sitting side by side—frequently
on couches. In Korea seating arrangements reflect status and role distinctions. In a
car, office, or home, the seat on the right is considered to be the place of honor.
For the Japanese, much like the Chinese, seating at any formal event is determined
based on hierarchy. When conducting business or diplomatic negotiations, the Japa-
nese will arrange themselves with the most senior person sitting in the middle and
those next highest in rank sitting to the left and right of this senior position. Low-
ranking members will sit away from the table, behind the other representatives.^137
Ways of reflecting “lower-ranking” members take a somewhat different seating
arrangement among Samoans and Fijians. For them, respect and status“means being
physically lower than a superior.”^138Furniture Arrangement
The way people arrange furniture (cubicles, chairs, tables, desks, sofas, etc.) can, as
Shah and Kesan note,“play a communicative role by expressing cultural or symbolic
meaning.”^139 The importance of seating arrangement as a form of communication,
and the role it occupies within a specific culture can be observed in the Chinese tra-
ditional philosophy offeng shuithat dates back over 3,000 years. This approach to the
arrangement of furniture and space is based on the Taoist tradition that stresses the
need for people and nature to live in harmony. The heart of this perspective is that
people must live with, rather than against, their environment. Further, it is believed
that striking the balance between self and one’s physical environment brings good
health, happiness, and wealth. You can observe the signs of this philosophy in Chi-
nese homes and the way some members of the family organize themselves at a table.
For example, when at a business meeting, Chinese executives will often seek out a
seat that they believe is synchronous with the environment.
Just asfeng shuireflects some of the history and values of China, furniture arrange-
ment can also mirror some of the values found in the United States, where furniture326 CHAPTER 9•Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence
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