The communication and social interactive dimensions of these narratives can be
seen as a form of“teaching”about culture. They are used in a variety of settings
(such as at home, in school, and at church), at all stages of language development
(oral, written, etc.), and at each stage of life (infancy, childhood, and adulthood).
As was the case with proverbs, because all people experience many of the same
circumstances and events in life, there are some similarities in the messages contained
in folktales across cultures. That is, stories of heroes, evil spirits, friendships, animals
that talk, good and evil, and even princesses are universal themes. In fact, you can
find the story of Cinderella, believed to be the most famous folktale in the world, in
many cultures. From China to Saudi Arabia, the little girl waiting for a prince to give
her a better life has well over 500 different cultural versions.^43 Walker develops this
notion of parallel subjects across cultures:
Although there is wonderful variety among the tales, there are also striking similarities. As
with other folktales, the same basic story is often told by people widely separated by geog-
raphy and language. For example, the Japanese folktale of Issun Boshi—which I have retold
as“One-Inch Boy”—is remarkably similar to the English folktale of Tom Thumb. And both
these tales echo stories told in many other lands.^44
What we have been suggesting in the last few paragraphs is that whether it tells of
Pinocchio’s nose growing longer because of his lies, Columbus’s daring voyage, Cap-
tain Ahab’s heroics as he seeks to overcome the power of nature, Abraham Lincoln
learning to read by drawing letters on a shovel by firelight, Robin Hood helping the
poor, or Davy Crockett as the courageous frontiersman fighting to save the Alamo,
folklore constantly reinforces important cultural lessons. Some of the“lessons”of folk-
tales are obvious, whereas others are very subtle. Notice, for example, the built-in
gender bias in the few examples we presented. In each story, males are the main char-
acters and heroes. When females appear in cultural stories (e.g.,“Cinderella,”“Snow
White,”“Little Red Riding Hood,”and many others), they are often portrayed as
submissive and docile. Since most cultures are male dominated and men create the
narratives, it is not surprising that women are seen as passive and meek in the stories
told to young people. However, a few contemporary story lines, such as inThe Hunger
Games, incorporate female characters like Katniss. She is not your typical woman in
distress but rather is presented as unruffled and brave.
As we have pointed out, the stories that are passed from generation to generation
are entertaining and captivating, but in nearly all cases, they are used to stress moral
messages and strengthen cultural values. Be it Hopalong Cassidy or John Wayne,
Americans revere the tough, independent, fast-shooting cowboy of the Old West;
the Japanese learn about the importance of duty, obligation, and loyalty from“The
Tale of the Forty-Seven Ronin” and the faithful dog Hachiko, who waited at
the same location for nine years for his owner to return; and the Sioux Indians use
the legend of“Pushing Up the Sky”to teach that people can accomplish much if they
work together. In South Africa, when a child is exposed to the“People of Rock,”he is
being entertained and learning how the“nunus”(little people with magical powers)
“care for all the sad and injured creatures of the world.”^45 For the Australian Aborigine,
the tale of“The Secret Dreaming”is the story of why the land is sacred and how people
are the caretakers of that land. Scandinavian children are confronted with an endless
array of strange-looking trolls as they listen to and read stories such as“The Boys Who
Met the Trolls in Hedal Woods.”In each story, they encounter the trolls and learn les-
sons for life, ranging from the importance of brushing their teeth to never telling a lie.48 CHAPTER 2•Communication and Culture: The Voice and the Echo
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