200 CHAPTER Six ■ The IndIvIdual
cooperative activities encouraged.
Systematic studies about their effec-
tiveness have yet to be written.
Alternative critical and post-
modernist approaches are attempt-
ing to draw mainstream theorists’
attention to other less well- known
and less- publicized stories, because
they, too, are part of the fabric of
international relations. Feminist
writers in par tic u lar have sought
to bring attention to the role of pri-
vate individuals, especially women.
In Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, po liti-
cal scientist Cynthia Enloe shows
strikingly how “the personal is inter-
national” by documenting the many
ways that women influence interna-
tional relations. She points to women
in economic roles participating in
the international division of labor, as
seamstresses, light- industry “girls,”
nannies, and fashion models. She
also identifies women more directly
involved in foreign policy — the
women living around military bases,
diplomatic wives, domestic servants,
and women in international organ-
izations.^19 Theirs are the untold stories of marginalized groups that critical theorists,
postmodernists, and constructivists are increasingly bringing to light.
Mass Publics
Mass publics have the same psychological tendencies as elite individuals and small
groups. They think in terms of perceptions and images, they see mirror images, and
they use similar information- processing strategies. During the height of the Cold
War, the United States and the Soviet Union were often seen as mirror images of each
other: the one generous and peace loving; the other selfish and aggressive. Following
the seizure of the U.S. embassy in Iran in 1979, public- opinion surveys showed the
i n 2009, former president Bill Clinton played an
instrumental role in arranging the release of two
American journalists being held by North Korea.
Private individuals, including former leaders who
no longer hold any government position, can
sometimes shape international relations.