Intergovernmental Organ izations 211the possibility of real disaster. Consistent with realist expectations, each will serve a
longer sentence than if they had cooperated and kept silent. But what happens when
the interaction is repeated? Then, according to neoliberal institutionalists, multiple
interactions lead to greater possibilities for cooperation. This continuous interaction
among states provides the motivation for states to create international organ izations.
In turn, these organ izations moderate state be hav ior, provide a framework for interac-
tions, establish mechanisms to reduce cheating by monitoring others and punishing
the uncooperative, and facilitate transparency for state actions. Organ izations are the
focal points for coordination and make state commitments more credible, specifying
expectations and establishing reputations for compliance.
International organ izations are particularly useful for solving two sets of prob lems.
One set of prob lems arises from the need to cooperate on technical, often nonpo liti cal,
issues where states are not the appropriate units for resolving these prob lems. As the
scholar David Mitrany writes in A Working Peace System, units (states, subnational
actors) need to “bind together those interests which are common, where they are
common, and to the extent to which they are common.”^2 This functional approach
advocates building on and expanding the habits of cooperation nurtured by groups of
technical experts outside of formal state channels. This notion explains why interna-
tional cooperation began in specific, technical- issue areas such as health and commu-
nications during the nineteenth century. The expectation, according to functionalist
thinking, was that solving prob lems in these technical areas (e.g., curbing epidemics,
facilitating international mail and telegraphic ser vices) would inspire cooperation or
spill over into po liti cal and military affairs, and new international organ izations would
form.
International organ izations also form around collective goods, the second type of
prob lem. In “The Tragedy of the Commons,” biologist Garrett Hardin tells the story
FunctIOnalIsm■ War is caused by economic
deprivation.
■ Economic disparity cannot be solved
in a system of in de pen dent states.
■ New functional units should be
created to solve specific economic
prob lems.■ People and groups will develop
habits of cooperation, which will spill
over from economic cooperation to
po liti cal cooperation.
■ In the end, economic disparities will
lessen and war will be eliminated.In F Ocus