Karen_A._Mingst,_Ivan_M._Arregu_n-Toft]_Essentia

How Wars Are Fought 277

of analy sis.^14 In actuality, most wars are caused by interactions between vari ous
factors at dif er ent levels of analy sis. (See Table 8.1.)

how Wars are fought

Along with the aims of war, and the quality and quantity of resources states and other
actors devote to winning, international relations theorists also argue there are impor­
tant diferences in how wars are fought. One impor tant distinction is whether a war is
fought conventionally or unconventionally. As the terms themselves denote, whether
a war is conventional or unconventional depends a great deal on norms: what counts
as conventional in 200 BCE might be considered dramatically unconventional today.
In this chapter we introduce con temporary understandings— widely shared—of what
counts as conventional or unconventional.

conventional War

Throughout most of human history, wars were fought by people— almost invariably
male— who were specially chosen, trained, and authorized to attack or defend against
their counter parts in other po liti cal communities. Almost all socie ties have also considered
some groups of limits, at least where killing is concerned. The tools of war reflected

T Able 8.1 C Auses oF WAr by level oF AnAly sis

LeveL Cause of War

i ndividual

(“First image”)

Aggressive leaders

Misperceptions by leaders

Human nature

state/society

(“second image”)

Cap i tal ist states, according to radicals

Nonliberal/authoritarian states, according to liberals

Domestic politics, scapegoating

Strug gle between groups for economic resources

Ethnonational challengers

international

system

(“Third image”)

Anarchy (self- help)

Power transitions (rising challengers or declining

great powers)

Aggressiveness of the international cap i tal ist class

(imperialism)