344 CHAPTER NiNE ■ InternatIonal Po lItI cal economy
The UN has undertaken the tasks of goal setting and monitoring a broad set of
development goals that emphasize not just GNI per capita but also other indicators of
human development, like education and health. In 2001, the UN- sponsored Millen-
nium Summit set forth eight goals known as the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). These goals were designed to reduce poverty by 2015 and promote sustain-
able human development in direct response to globalization. Each substantive goal (e.g.,
poverty reduction, better education, improved health, environmental sustainability,
and global partnerships) had specific targets, time frames, and per for mance indicators,
along with an implementation plan. The goals have clearly raised public awareness and
helped to direct aid flows to the poorer countries in targeted sectors like health and
education.
Substantial pro gress toward achieving these goals has been made.^17 Extreme pov-
erty, defined as living on less than $1.25 a day, has declined significantly, both in terms
of the percentage of (from 50 percent to 14 percent) and the absolute number of people,
from 1.9 billion in 2001 to 836 million in 2015. Primary school enrollment has reached
91 percent in the developing regions, and the number of out- of- school children of pri-
mary school age has fallen by half. Most improved in this category is sub- Saharan
Africa. Many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago, with Southern Asia
improving the most. Under- five mortality rates have declined by more than half. The
maternal mortality ratio has declined by 45 percent worldwide, with major reductions
in both Southern Asia and sub- Saharan Africa. New HIV infections fell by 40 percent,
and the malaria incidence rate has fallen by 37 percent. Globally, 147 countries have met
the drinking water target, 95 countries the sanitation target, and 77 countries both. Offi-
cial development assistance from the developed countries is $135.2 billion per year, an
increase of 66 percent in real terms since 2000. But, as one critic points out, there are
methodological prob lems with attributing these advancements to the MDGs: “pro gress
toward the Goals is not the same as pro gress because of the Goals.”^18
Yet it is widely acknowledged that, while pro gress on many indicators was made,
the actual goals were not achieved. Major gaps persist between the rural and urban areas,
and between the poorest and richest house holds within countries. Climate change is
undermining pro gress, and millions still live in poverty without access to basic ser vices.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030 were passed by the UN Gen-
eral Assembly in 2015. More ambitious and broad- ranging than the MDGs, the SDGs
include 17 goals such as ending poverty and hunger, ensuring healthy lives in safe and
inclusive cities, and developing reliable and sustainable modern energy supplies. Asso-
ciated targets number 169. An estimated $90 to $120 trillion is needed for those goals
to be achieved— through partnerships among governments, the private sector, and
NGOs, rather than through traditional foreign aid. Skeptics are legitimately concerned
that these goals are too encompassing and too unwieldy to mea sure. Some commenta-
tors predict their “impending failure,” even before they have begun.^19