362 CHAPTER TEn ■ Human Riht
For several centuries after the Treaties of Westphalia, state sovereignty remained
unchallenged. How states treated individuals and groups within their own jurisdiction
was their own responsibility. In the twenty- first century, that is no longer true. What
happens in Asian cities, African towns, Eu ro pean streets, and American halls of gov-
ernment is not only heard around the world but also watched carefully. State authori-
ties who take coercive actions against individuals and groups are widely condemned
by other states and the media, even if no others choose to act. Even what happens
within the family (e.g., vio lence against spouses, children, to people of a dif er ent
sexual orientation) is now viewed as a public issue.
While these issues have only relatively recently risen to a prominent place on the
international agenda, the ethical treatment of individuals and groups of individuals—
or human rights— has a long historical genesis. Over the ages, both phi los o phers and
theologians have waxed eloquent over proper treatment of individuals and groups,
while novelists and essayists have called attention to the evils of slavery, forced
servitude, and the degradation of women and children. Individuals who have been
prevented from freely expressing themselves or practicing their religion have emi-
grated, finding new homes far away from ofending authorities. Civil wars are fought
over acceptable treatment of individuals and groups. That people care about other
people comes from religious, philosophical, and historical traditions. We briefly explore
those traditions and then trace how the notion of responsibility for protection of rights
of individuals and groups has become internationalized.
Lem aRainObjechRvet■ Describe the religious, philosophical, and historical foundations of human
rights.
■ Explain the roles that states, IGOs, and nGOs perform in the protection
and monitoring of human rights.
■ Identify what human rights have been protected under international law.
■ Analyze why the international community so often has failed to respond
to allegations of genocide.
■ Analyze why women’s human rights in the private sphere are so difficult
to address.
■ Explain why refugees are both a human rights and a humanitarian issue.