364 CHAPTER TEn ■ Human Riht
Four major debates emerge from these foundations. First, are these really human
rights? That is, are they inalienable— fundamental to every person? Are they necessary
to life? Are they nonnegotiable— that is, are the rights so essential that they cannot be
taken away? If human rights are inalienable, are they not, by definition, universal rights?
Second, if human rights are universal, are they really applicable to all peoples, in
all states, religions, and cultures, without exception? Or are rights dependent on cul-
ture? Some scholars have argued for cultural relativism, the idea that some rights are
culturally determined, and hence, that dif er ent rights are relevant in dif er ent cultural
settings. Particularly sensitive have been the debates on women’s status, child protec-
tion, family planning, and practices such as female circumcision. Other scholars like
po liti cal scientist Jack Donnelley see both universal and contextual ele ments, which
he calls “relative universality.”^2 The Vienna Declaration adopted at the 1993 World
Conference on Human Rights stated, “All human rights are universal, indivisible and
interdependent and interrelated.” But the same document qualified the statement, say-
ing “the significance of national and regional particularities and vari ous historical, cul-
tural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind.”
Third, should some rights be prioritized over others? Just because political- civil rights
have a longer historical genesis, are those rights more impor tant than the others are?
The Dharavi neighborhood is one of the biggest slums in Mumbai, India. Many of its residents
lack decent work, education, housing, and health. Although human rights are often debated in
lofty terms, the absence of socioeconomic rights protections has real consequences for people.