372 CHAPTER TEn ■ Human Riht
security. Others responded by questioning whether less violent methods might not
have achieved the same results. Still others, like U.S. senator John McCain, argued
that Americans should not use torture because it is wrong and violates what it means
to be an American. Indeed, the Convention against Torture is clear: freedom from
torture is a right never to be revoked. But what acts are considered torture remains a
controversial question, as Chapters 7 and 8 discuss.
Economic conditions also influence a country’s adherence to human rights stan-
dards. Poor states or states experiencing deteriorating economic conditions are apt to
repress political- civil rights, in an effort by the elite to maintain authority and divert
attention from economic disintegration. But even eco nom ically developed states may
have difficulty meeting the demands of economic and social rights for all members of
their population. And, in some cases, those rights may be deliberately undermined or
denied due to discrimination by race, creed, national origin, or gender.
Fi nally, culture and history affect a state’s human rights rec ord. Where there is a long
history of communal vio lence, ethnic hatred, and mobilizing ideologies (like Nazism),
then human rights are more apt to be abused. High degrees of factionalization along
ethnic, religious, or ideological lines bring out the worst abuses.
h he ole of the Rnternational
Community—RiOs and aiOs
What can the international community do to protect human rights? What can the
United Nations and other intergovernmental organ izations do when they are them-
selves composed of the very sovereign states that threaten individual and group rights?^6
Igos in action
The human rights activities of the United Nations and other intergovernmental organ-
izations (IGOs) involve, first and foremost, setting the international human rights
standards articulated in the many international treaties. (See Table 10.1.) With stan-
dards set, even though some may be aspirational, the IGOs can then move on to prob-
lems connected with implementation.
Second, the United Nations and the Eu ro pean Commission on Human Rights have
worked to monitor state be hav ior by establishing procedures for complaints about state
practices, compiling reports from interested and neutral observers about state be hav ior,
and investigating alleged violations. Monitoring state be hav ior is a sensitive undertaking
because it impinges directly on state sovereignty. Yet special bodies have been established
to examine, advise, and publicly report on the human rights situation in a given country
or on worldwide violations.