Social Norms and Institutionsin the region was also found to have positive benefits both
on those who are religious and on those who are not.
This said, the policy implications are not clear. If people
cannot believe in an active deity or an afterlife, it is no good
recommending that they should. For such people a form of
ethics based on satisfying human need may be a more pow-
erful and satisfying source of purpose in life.^39
Income
Finally we should comment on the large effect of income on
happiness when measured by the cross- section of countries.
This is greater than the effect within countries, especially
when the impact of comparator income is allowed for.^40 It
also differs from the weak cross- country relation between
economic growth and happiness growth discussed in Chap-
ter 2. One partial explanation could be that all countries are
comparing their incomes with a world standard that has
risen over time. Only time will tell how far this is true.^41
Conclusion
In this short chapter we have covered very briefly many of
the most important influences on human happiness— those
that are common to many members of societies and not
just one at a time (as in most of this book). People are not
happy where there is distrust, social dislocation, oppression,
inequality, and poor government. And ethical movements
have an important role to play in every society, in every age.^42