160–72.
chance of failing was zero : Arnold C. Cooper, Carolyn Y. Woo, and
William C. Dunkelberg, “Entrepreneurs’ Perceived Chances for Success,”
Journal of Business Venturing 3 (1988): 97–108.
given the lowest grade : Thomas Astebro and Samir Elhedhli, “The
Effectiveness of Simple Decision Heuristics: Forecasting Commercial
Success for Early-Stage Ventures,” Management Science 52 (2006):
395–409.
widespread, stubborn, and costly : Thomas Astebro, “The Return to
Independent Invention: Evidence of Unrealistic Optimism, Risk Seeking or
Skewness Loving?” Economic Journal 113 (2003): 226–39.
bet small amounts of money : Eleanor F. Williams and Thomas Gilovich,
“Do People Really Believe They Are Above Average?” Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008): 1121–28.
“hubris hypothesis” : Richard Roll, “The Hubris Hypothesis of Corporate
Takeovers,” Journal of Business 59 (1986): 197–216, part 1. This
remarkable early article presented a behavioral analysis of mergers and
acquisitions that abandoned the assumption of rationality, long before such
analyses became popular.
“value-destroying mergers” : Ulrike Malmendier and Geoffrey Tate, “Who
Makes Acquisitions? CEO Overconfidence and the Market’s Reaction,”
Journal of Financial Economics 89 (2008): 20–43.
“engage in earnings management” : Ulrike Malmendier and Geoffrey Tate,
“Superstar CEOs,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 24 (2009), 1593–
1638.
self-aggrandizement to a cognitive bias : Paul D. Windschitl, Jason P.
Rose, Michael T. Stalk-fleet, and Andrew R. Smith, “Are People Excessive
or Judicious in Their Egocentrism? A Modeling Approach to
Understanding Bias and Accuracy in People’s Optimism,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 252–73.
average outcome is a loss : A form of competition neglect has also been
observed in the time of day at which sellers on eBay choose to end their
auctions. The easy question is: At what time is the total number of bidders
the highest? Answer: around 7:00 p.m. EST. The question sellers should
answer is harder: Considering how many other sellers end their auctions
during peak hours, at what time will there be the most bidders looking at
my auction? The answer: around noon, when the number of bidders is
large relative to the number of sellers. The sellers who remember the
competition and avoid prime time get higher prices. Uri Simonsohn,
“eBay’s Crowded Evenings: Competition Neglect in Market Entry
Decisions,” Management Science 56 (2010): 1060–73.