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Acknowledgements P.G.B. is indebted to the EPSRC, including the SUPERGEN programme,
the Henry Royce Institute for Advanced Materials (EP/R00661X/1, EP/S019367/1, EP/R010145/1)
and the Faraday Institution (FIRG007, FIRG008) for financial support. We thank H. Playford and
R. Smith at ISIS, Harwell Campus for collecting neutron diffraction data. Support from the
EPSRC (EP/K040375/1 ‘South of England Analytical Electron Microscope’) is also
acknowledged. We acknowledge the use of the University of Oxford Advanced Research
Computing (ARC) facility (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22558) in carrying out this work, and
the resources provided by the Cambridge Tier-2 system operated by the University of
Cambridge Research Computing Service (http://www.hpc.cam.ac.uk) funded by EPSRC Tier-2
capital grant EP/P020259/1, via the Advanced Materials for Alkali-ion Batteries (AMAiB) project.
Synchrotron radiation experiments were performed at the i21 beamline, Diamond Light
Source, Harwell, UK, with supporting data collected from the ADRESS beamline, Swiss Light
Source, Villigen, Switzerland, and BL27SU, Spring8, Japan. We acknowledge technical and
experimental support at the ADRESS beamline by T. Schmitt, D. McNally, X. Lu, L. Nue and M.
Dantz and at the BL27SU beamline by K. Tsuruta. We thank N. Rees for help in collecting NMR
spectra.Author contributions R.A.H., U.M., M.R.R. and P.G.B. conceived the study. U.M. and R.A.H.
carried out the materials synthesis, characterization and testing. R.A.H., U.M., J.W.S., M.R.R. and
L.C.D. contributed to the measurement processing and interpretation of the spectroscopic
data. M.A.P.-O. performed the DFT calculations. L.J. collected, processed and interpreted the
NMR data. J.G.L. performed and interpreted the ADF-STEM measurements. R.A.H., A.N., A.W.
and K.-J.Z. performed high-resolution RIXS and sXAS measurements. R.A.H. and P.G.B. wrote
the manuscript with contributions and revisions from all authors.Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.Additional information
Supplementary information is available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-
1854-3.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to P.G.B.
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