The Roman Republic
tribunesin(Livy,,–,);ortheaccusationofScipioAfricanus.
TosavenotoriousconfusionsIwillquotesimplyPolybius’account(,,
–): therewas an accusation before the peopleaccording to the custom of the
Romans;Scipiospokeinhisowndefenceandthepeopledispersed,unwilling
tohearthecasefurther.Bycontrast,complaintsbyaChalcidianembassyin
theSenateinledtoC.LucretiusGallus,praetorof,beingbrought
beforeapublicmeeting,adaybeingset(dies dicta)forhistrial,andhiscon-
demnationtoafinebyallthirty-fivetribes(Livy,,–,).Whenthe
issuearoseoftheimproperenslavementoftheStatiellatesinLiguriain,
the Senate ordered restitution; then in therewas a decree of the Sen-
ateandabillsettingupanenquiry,tobeconductedbyapraetor.Butthis
wasnotapopularcourt,andthepraetorallowedthecasetolapse,overcome
byinfluenceandsupplications(Livy,–;–).Inthiscase,therefore,
popularsovereigntywasexercisedindirectly,withineffectiveresults.Abso-
lutionmightalsobeachievedbyadirectappealtothepeople;so,whenin
atribunemovedabillovertheconductofServiusSulpiciusGalbaaspraetor
inLusitania,andCatosupportedtheproposal,Galbabroughthisownsons
andtheorphanedsonofC.Gallusbeforethepeople;bythesemeanshejust
escaped,‘‘havingstirredthepityofthePeople.’’^16
Cicero describes this bill as being like aprivilegium, that is, a law passed
inrespectofanindividual.Butcomparableissuescouldalsobepresentedin
impersonalterms,asin,whenabillwasmovedforthesetting-upofan
enquiryintothemoneyacquiredfromAntiochusIII.Publicspeecheswere
madeoneitherside,includingCato’sde pecunia regis Antiochi,andthebillwas
passedbyallthirty-fivetribes(Livy,–).
ThusthegreatvictoriesgainedbyRomancommanderswerefoughtby
annualmagistrateswhogainedtheirchancebyacombinationofelection,the
lot,and,sometimes,prorogation.Theiractionswereliabletoinvestigation
and prosecution, and the terms on which theyconcluded their wars were
subject to senatorial approval and thevotes of the people.These processes
were of course frequently ineffective in practice. For instance L. Licinius
Lucullus,asconsulof,madewarontheVaccaeiinSpain,contrarytoa
treaty,without,asAppiansays,everbeingputontrialforit(Iber.–/–
). None the less, Polybius perhaps hardly stressed sufficiently the limits
which,asyet,confinedthe‘‘monarchic’’elementintheRomanstate.
. Cicero,Brut.Peter,HRR,Origines,F.ORF^3 ,CatoLI;cf.Appian,Iber.
/,statingthatheusedhiswealthtoescapecondemnation.