Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic thissemi-technicalusagewasalreadycurrent.Moreover,theapplicationof
theseterms,bothinthelateRepublicandinmodernworks,toanydescen-
dants,howeverremote,oftherelevantoffice-holdersconcealsconsiderable
fluctuationsintheoccupationofofficeovergenerations.
Finally,asregardsourconceptionofoffice-holdinginthisperiod,wehave
perfectlyclearevidenceastowhatsuccessiontoofficewouldhavebeenlikeif
therehadinfactbeennoopencompetition,andiftheapparentlydemocratic
electionshadinrealitymaskedaneffectiveprocessofco-optationmanaged
fromabove.Forthecollegesofpriestswerestillfilledbyco-optation,and
theoccupationofpriesthoodsshowsthecommonacquisitionoftheroleat
anearlyage,retentionforlife,andahighrateofsuccessionwithinfamilies,
includingdirectsuccessionfromfathertoson.^42 Itishardlysurprisingthat
transferoftherightofappointmenttobeinthegiftofthepeoplewastobe
putforwardasabillin(Cic.,Lael.),andachievedin.
If we go back, once again, to Polybius, he tells us, firstly, that cavalry-
men were liable for ten years’ military service and, secondly, that no one
could hold officewho had not completed ten years’ service (, , –). It
is thus reasonable, if not absolutely certain, to accept the view of Gelzer,
arguedmorefullybyNicolet,thatthecensusratingofanequestrian,what-
ever it was in this period,was a prerequisite for public office.^43 Public life
wasthusnotonlystronglyinfluencedbydescent,butwas,inastrictsense,
timocratic.ThatisallthatPolybiussaysaboutqualificationforoffice,other
than his remark that it is one of the prerogatives of the people to bestow
honour(τιμή)—or,indifferentwords,‘‘togivemagistraciestothosewho
areworthy,whichisthefairestrewardofexcellence[καλοκαγαθία]inthe
state’’ (, , and ).This is a significant aspect of what he means by the
‘‘aristocratic’’elementintheRomansystem.
The only other point which Polybius makes about elections is that,
whereasatCarthagepeoplegainofficebyopenlyofferinggifts,inRomethe
penaltyforthatisdeath(,,).Lawsonbribery(ambitus)areknownto
havebeenpassedinand,thoughnothingisknownoftheircontent.
But the fact that the need was felt to take measures against electoral mal-
practice is a clear hint that adequate support could not be secured on the
basisofpersonalrelationsofdependence.Sotooistherisinglevelofdisplay
andmunificencedirectedtothepublicatlarge.Triumphs,whichwerethe
subjectofrepeateddebateintheSenate,andononeoccasionbythepeople
. SeeD.E.Hahn,‘‘TheRomanNobilityandtheThreeMajorPriesthoods,–
B.C.,’’TAPhA():;G.B.Szemler,The Priests of the Roman Republic().
. Gelzer(n.),;C.Nicolet,‘‘LecenssénatorialsouslaRépubliqueetsousAuguste,’’
JRS():.