The Roman Republic
cametolegislation,ortowarandpeace,theSenatecouldnotdecide;and
itswishescouldbetranslatedintoactiononlybyanelectedmagistratewith
thepowertostepoutside,proclaimhisintentiontoproposealaw,andlater
summonthepeople,addressthem,andcallthemtovote.
For if oratory was, so far as our evidence tells us, the chief influence
broughttobearonvotingwithinthewallsoftheSenate,thesamewastrue
oftheopen-airmeetingsofthecitizens.Inseekingavalidconceptionofthis
wemightstartfromthetouchingimageintheAnnalesof Ennius(,–
Vahlen/–Warmington)ofServiliusGeminus(theonewhodiedat
Cannae)returninghometiredafterspendingmostof hisdaydirectingthe
affairsofstate‘‘byhiscounselinthebroadForumandthesacredSenate.’’We
mightalsorecallEnnius’descriptionofM.CorneliusCethegus,‘‘thehoney
tongued’’ consul of , nicknamed by his fellow countrymen (populares)
‘‘thechoiceflowerofthePeopleandthemarrowofpersuasion.’’^62
Legislation,war,andpeaceweredecidedbythepeople,whoweresum-
monedtotheForumortotheCapitoltobeaddressedinspeeches,andwho
voted(forlegislation)asthetribalassemblyintheForumand(forwarand
peace)asthecenturiateassemblyintheCampusMartius.^63 Nolessimpor-
tant, and no less subject to oratory, were the meetings of these same two
assembliestohearcapitalcasesorvoteonfinesimposedbymagistrates.Great
uncertainties,asisknown,attendthequestionofthejuridicalcharacterof
thesepopularcourts,andtherangeofoffencesandpersonswhichtheyactu-
ally judged.^64 But we ought to be impressed by the image of the criminal
trialbeforetheassembly,asitappearsinPlautus.^65 Theforty-fouraccusations
whichCatounderwentinthecourseofhiscareerwillallhavebeenbefore
thesepopularcourts,andprovideanextremeinstanceoftheimportanceof
the political trial before the people (Pliny,NH, ). But we know too,
from theAnnalesof Calpurnius Piso (cos. ), that ordinarycitizens could
. Cicero,Brutus;Ennius,Ann.,–Vahlen/–Warmington.
. Forthefulleststudyoftheformsofpopularparticipation,seeofcourseC.Nicolet,
Le métier du citoyen()The World of the Citizen in Republican Rome(),esp.chap.,
whichhoweverdealswiththeentirerepublicanperiodanddoesnotofferconclusionsas
tothenatureofpowerwithinthesystem.
. SeeW.Kunkel,Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung des römischen Kriminalverfahrens in vor-
sullanischer Zeit();H.F.JolowiczandB.Nicholas,Historical Introduction to the Study of
Roman Law^3 (),–;A.H.M.Jones,The Criminal Courts of the Roman Republic and
Principate(),chap.;A.W.Lintott,‘‘Provocatio,’’ANRWI.(),;A.Giovannini,
‘‘VolkstribunatundVolksgericht,’’Chiron():.
. Plautus,Captivi–;Pseudolus–;Aulularia;Truculentus.