Rome, the Greek World, and the East, Vol. 2 - Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire

126 The Imperial Government

Theassociationofcondemnationtohardlabourwithviolentintrusionon
thebodyextendedtotattooing,normallyperformedontheface,butafter
Constantine’sproclamationof315/16onotherpartsofthebody(CTh9,40,
2CJ9,47,17):

Ifanyonehasbeencondemnedtoagladiatorialschoolorametallumin

accordancewiththeseriousnessofthecrimesinwhichhehasbeende-

tected,letthereonnoaccountbemarkingonhisface,sincethepenalty

ofhiscondemnationcanbefulfilledmerelybymarkingonthehands

andcalves,sothattheface,whichisformedinimitationofthedivine

beauty,mayinnowaybedisfigured.

Tousemarking(almostcertainlytattooing—scribtio—ratherthanbranding)
asthesignoraccompanimentofcriminalpenaltieswas,ofcourse,toapplyto
freementreatmentoriginallyreservedforslaves.Wemaynotetheincident
in Petronius,Sat. 103–4, in which Encolpius and Gitus, to disguise them-
selvesasfugitiveslaves,havetheirheadsshaved(orhalf-shaved?—105,2)and
theirfacesmarkedwithink.^7 Thisparallelism,asisgenerallyaccepted,runs
throughtheevolutionof harsherpenaltiesundertheEmpireandisoneof
itsprimaryfeatures.Indeed,Macersofarassumedtheparallelastoinvertit,
writingthatslaveswerepunishedinthesamemannerashumiliores(lower-
classpersons)—exceptthat,forthesameoffence,afreemanwouldbebeaten
withrods(fustes)andaslavewithwhips(flagella)andreturnedtohismaster
(Dig.48,19,10,pr.;seefurtherbelow).Thisdistinctionnonethelessleftthe
freemanof lowstatusmuchclosertotheslavethantoanupper-classfree
man.Boththe(marginal)distinctioninthetypeof beatingandthemuch
morefundamentaldistinctionoverliabilityorotherwisetohardlabourare
visibleforinstanceinthereplyofAntoninusPiustoaprovincialgovernor
aboutthedespoilingofashipwreck(Dig.47,9,4,1):

If itappearsthatbootyofamoresignificantsorthasbeensoughtby

force,youwillrelegatefreemenforthreeyears,or,iftheyareofhum-

bler rank [sordidiores], you will have them beaten withfustesand put

toopus publicumforthesameperiod;asforslaves,youwillhavethem

beatenwithwhipsandcondemnthemtometallum.

7. IhadearlierassumedthatConstantinewasspeakingofbranding(onthefaceorelse-
   where).Butthecharacteristicexpressionsused—scribtio,fronteslitteratietc.—clearlysuggest
   tattooing,asdoesafairvolumeofcomparativeevidence;seeJ.W.B.BarnsandH.Lloyd-
   Jones,‘‘Unnuovoframmentopapiraceodell’elegeiaellenistica,’’St. It. Fil. Class.35(1963):
   205.IamalsogratefultoProfessorC.P.Jonesforlettingmeseehisthenunpublishedpaper,
   ‘‘Stigma:TattooingandBrandinginGraeco-RomanAntiquity,’’JRS77(1987):139.