138 The Imperial Government
ofsouthernEgyptinthelatersecondcenturyb.c.,alsocannotbebrought
intoanyrelationwithRomanuseofconvictlabourinEgyptianmines(see
below).Butweneednotdismissaltogetherthepossibilitythatimperialprac-
ticewasderivedfromHellenisticprecedents.The‘‘worksinEgypt’’towhich
Titusin70sentJewishprisonerswereperhapsmines(Josephus,BJ6,418).
However,itistypicalofthepovertyofoursourcesforthestructureofthe
Empireinthefirstcenturya.d.thatwehearnothingoftheinstitutionof
condemnationtothemetalla,apartfromSuetonius(above),untilwecometo
twobriefallusionsinPliny’sLetters.InthetrialofMariusPriscus,theformer
proconsulofAfrica,itwasallegedthataRomanequestrianhadbeen‘‘beaten
withfustes,condemnedtometallum,strangledinacarcer’’(Ep.2,11,8).There
isaclearemphasisonthebreachofrulesaboutsocialstatus,andaclearimpli-
cationthatthepenaltyofmetallumwasnotitselfunknown.Then,inadispute
whichPlinyheardinBithynia,therewasrecitedbeforehimtheverdictof
theproconsulVeliusPaulus,bywhichaphilosopher,FlaviusArchippus,had
beendamnatus in metallumonbeingconvictedofforgery(10,58,3).Theallu-
sioncarriesthesameimplicationaboutthenormalityofthepenalty;inthis
case, though wewould naturally suppose Archippus to have been of rela-
tivelyhighsocialstatus,nothingsuggeststhathiscondemnationwasseenas
unusual.Themoresignificantcombinedimplicationofthesetwoitemsof
evidenceisthatthispenaltywasinestablisheduseinbothaGreek-anda
Latin-speakingprovince.
Fromthenexttwocenturies,whenlegalevidenceprovidesatleastsome
conceptionofwhatmetallummeant,onlycertainbasicsocialandeconomic
featuresneedbeconsideredhere.
- Both slaves and free men could be condemned tometallum(formally
statedbyGordianinCJ9,47,11).
2.Aswewouldexpect,personsofhighersocialstatuswereexempt.This
principleisnotindeedexplicitlystatedinHadrian’swell-knownreplytothe
provincial council of Baetica about cattle rustling,which laid downmetal-
lumforpersistentoffenders.^26 However,rulingsofHadrianontheescapeof
convictsalreadypresupposethetwodifferentscalesofpenaltiesappliedto
upper-andlower-classpersons,asattestedsubsequently;inthecategoryof
custodialpenalties(incustodiis)metallumwasthemostsevere,andescapefrom
itcouldonlybepunishedbydeath.^27 Thesocialdistinctionhappensfirstto
be explicitlyattested formetallumin Antoninus Pius’ edict that thosewho
stolefrommetalla Caesariana(imperialminesorquarries)shouldbepunished - MostfullyinColl.11,7,1–2;extractinDig.47,14,1pr.
27.Dig.48,19,28,13–14.SeeGarnsey,Social Status(n.6),103–4.