192 The Imperial Government
the much longer delays certainly involved in the journeys of ambassadors
frombeyondtheEmpire.
6.Evenmoreimportant,itisessentialtoenvisagethemilitary-diplomatic
relationsoftheEmpirenotsomuchingeographicalorevenethnographical
termsbutasnetworksofrelationshipspartlycreatedbysymbolicacts(the
sendingof hostages,exchangesofgifts,thegrantofcrowns)andbyverbal
exchanges,conductedontheRomansidebygovernorsandlocalcommand-
ers, but above all by the emperor in person. It may be worth noting that
Gaiusgivesastheprimeexampleofanobligationvalidforaperegrinus(non-
citizen) the occasion when ouremperor (imperator noster) formallyasks the
princepsofsomeforeignpeople,‘‘doyousolemnlypromisethattherewillbe
peace’’?(pacem futuram spondes?)^143
7.Inaccordancewiththelong-establishedtraditionsofRomanpubliclife
thepositionofemperorwasfromthebeginningbothcivilandmilitary.It
isalsoclearthatthoseemperorsofthefirstcenturyandahalfwhohadno
establishedmilitaryreputationactivelysoughtmajorcampaignswhilethey
wereonthethrone.Yetaqualitativechangeseemstooccurinthemiddleof
thesecondcentury,intermsofwhich,fromthenuntiltheendofthefourth,
itisassumedthatallmajorcampaigns,defensiveoroffensive,requiredirect
commandbythe(oran)emperorinperson.
8.Thisassumptionleddirectlytotheneedforamultiplicationofemper-
ors,andthustotheTetrarchy,thecomplexco-emperorshipsofAugustiand
Caesaresinthefourthcentury,andultimatelytothedivisionoftheEmpire
inthefifth.
9.Itcannotbespecificallyproved—andthereforeshouldnotbeassumed
—thatanemperor,whetherreceivingembassiesinRomeorreplyingtomes-
sagesfromprovincialgovernors,or(progressively)takingcommandinthe
fieldhimselfandconfrontingbarbarianchiefsordelegationsorPersianemis-
sarieswhileoncampaign,hadaccesstoprivilegedarchivesofinformationin
strategicmatters,orthathehadanyadviceonwhichtodrawexceptthatpro-
videdbytheamici,comites,orconsistorianiwhomheconsulted,butbywhom
hecouldnotbebound.
- For these reasons the emperor’s strategic choices and orders and the
replies which he made in formal verbal exchanges with foreign embassies
couldonlybedeterminedbythegeneralvaluesofGraeco-Romanculture,
ofwhichhehimselfwasaproduct.Whenthatculturechanged,aswiththe
victoryof Christianity, so did some of thevalues which informed foreign
relations;Constantine’slettertoShapurIIisperhapsthefirstsymbolofthat. - Gaius,Inst.3,94.