218 The Imperial Government
discussed for the first time as a historical source, is certainly an extract
fromtheacta(proceedings)oftheSenate,datestothereignofCommodus
(a.d.180–92),andseemstoshowexchangeswithanembassy([l]egatio)which
maybeonefromthecentralEuropeantribeknownastheBuri;atanyrate,in
atypicallyfrustratingway,thewordBu[ri?]canbereadinthepapyrus.Itwas
alreadyknownfromCassiusDio(72,3,1–2)thatCommodushad‘‘granted
peace’’tothisGermanicpeopleearlyinhisreign.^30
Secondly, there are questions of procedure. In its dealings with foreign
peoples,theSenatehadalwaysused,forthereceptionofembassies,amini-
mallyadjustedversionofitsstandardproceedings.Itfunctionedessentially
bythepresentationoftherelevantsubjectmatterbythepresidingmagistrate,
usuallyaconsulorpraetor,thegivingofopinionsbythemoreseniorsenators
inorderofprecedence,andwherenecessaryavotebydivision.Embassies,
whetherappearingsinglyorincompetitionordisputewitheachother,were
simply heard after being introduced by the presiding magistrate, and the
restoftheprocedurecontinuedasnormal.Aswiththeemperor,onecould
saythatdiplomacywassimply‘‘embedded’’inamoregeneralframeworkof
government,inwhichverbalexchangesandpronouncementsplayedapre-
dominantpart.Liketheemperor,theSenatehadatitsdisposalnospecific
agencyforthebureaucraticorprofessionalmanagementofforeignrelations,
orforthepreparationofmissivestoforeignpowers.Itwas,however,normal
for inscribed texts of treaties to be put up on the Capitol (texts to nn. 9–
10above).
IntheRepublic,theSenatehadalsoperformedthediplomaticfunction
of sending embassies from within its own ranks to negotiatewith foreign
powers.Onceagain,thefunctionwasembeddedinthemoregeneralexer-
ciseofapublicpoliticalrole,andnocoreofspecialistdiplomatsexisted.In
theEmpire,however,notraceofthisfunctioncanbefoundatall.Byanodd
paradox,theonlyembassieswhichtheSenatenowsentwereoneswiththe
functionofaddressingtheemperorhimselformembersofhisfamily.
Theactiveconductofforeignrelationsthereforerestedentirelywiththe
emperor,hisadvisers,andhisentourage.Butvariousproblemssuggestedby
Dio’saccountofHadrian’sdealingswiththeembassiesfromVologaesesand
theIazygesstillpresentthemselves.Wecanbesure,asmentionedabove,that
lettersfromandtoVologaeseswillhavebeeninGreek,justastheParthian
ambassadorsmaywellhavespokenintheSenateinGreek.Whoeverwas‘‘in
chargeofGreekletters’’andperhapssimultaneouslyresponsibleforreceiving
- R.J.A.Talbert,‘‘CommodusasDiplomatinanExtractfromtheActaSenatus,’’ZPE
71(1988):137–47.